GILDERSLEEVE'S
LATIN GBAMMAE
Vov
\
GILDERSLEEVE'S
LATIN GRAMMAR
THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED
BY
B. L. GILDERSLEEVE
PROFESSOR OP GREEK IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY
AND
GONZALEZ LODGE
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OP LATIN IN BRYN MAWR COLLEGE
3Lont»0n
M ACM ILL AN AND CO., LIMITED
1903
PREFACE.
THE first edition of this LATIN GRAMMAR appeared in
1867, the second in 1872 ; the third edition, carefully revised
and very much enlarged, is herewith presented to the public.
In the preparation of this third edition the office of the
senior collaborator has been chiefly advisory, except in the
Syntax. In the syntax nearly everything that pertains to
the history of usage has been brought together by Professor
LODGE ; but for all deviations from the theory of former
editions we bear a joint responsibility.
A manual that has held its place, however modest, for
more than a quarter of a century, hardly needs an elaborate
exposition of the methods followed ; but as the new gram-
mar embraces a multitude of details that were not taken
up in the old grammar, it has been thought fit that Pro-
fessor LODGE should indicate the sources of the notes with
which he has enriched the original work.
B. L. GlLDERSLEEVE.
GONZALEZ LODGE.
August 1, 1895.
THE following supplementary note may serve to embody a partial
bibliography of the more important works used in this revision, and
some necessary explanations of the method :
Fairly complete bibliographies of works on Latin Etymology
and Syntax may be found in REISIG'S Vorlesungen uber lateinische
Sprachwissenschaft (new edition, by HAGEN, SCHMALZ, and LANDGRAF,
1881-1888), and in the Lateinische Grammatik of STOLZ and SCHMALZ
(in MULLER'S Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft; 3d
edition, 1890). Important also are the Grammars of KUHNER (1877,
1878) * and ROBY (1881, 1882) ; though many statements in both, but
especially in the former, must be corrected in the light of more recent
study. Some indications of more modern theories may be found in
* A new Historical Grammar, by STOLZ, SCHMALZ, LANDGRAF, and WAQENEK, was
announced by TKUBNEK in 1891
IV PKEFACE.
the Erlduterungen zur lateinischen Grammatik of DEECKE (1893).
Many matters of importance both in Etymology and Syntax are
treated in the Archiv fur lateinische Lexicographie, and the construc-
tions with individual words are often well discussed in KEEBS' Anti-
barbarus der lateinischen Sprache (6th edition, by SCHMALZ, 1886).
For the accentuation and pronunciation of Latin we have also
CORSSEN'S Aussprache, Vocalismus und Betonung der lateinischen
Sprache (1868, 1870), and SEELMANN'S Die Aussprache des Latein (1885).
For the Etymology we must refer to BUCHELER'S Grundriss der
lateinischen Declination (3d edition, by WINDEKILDE, 1879) and to
SCHWEIZER-SIDLER'S Lateinische Grammatik (1888) ; also to many
articles in various journals, most of which are given by STOLZ. Indis-
pensable is NEUE'S Formenlehre der lateinischen Sprache, of which the
second volume of the third edition has already appeared (1892) and the
first parts of the third volume (1894), under the careful revision of
WAGENEE; also GEOEGES' Lexikon der lateinischen Wortformen (1890).
For the Formation of Words and the relation of Latin forms to those
of the related languages we have HENRY'S Precis de Grammaire Com-
paree and BRUGMANN'S Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik, both
now accessible in translations. On these, in connection with SCHWEIZER-
SIDLEE, the chapter on the Formation of Words has been based.
In the historical treatment of the Syntax we must still rely in large
measure on DRAEGER'S Historische Syntax der lateinischen Sprache
(2d edition, 1878, 1881), faulty and inaccurate though it often is :
many of the false statements have been corrected on the basis of more
recent individual studies by SCHMALZ ; but even SCHMALZ is not always
correct, and many statements of his treatise have been silently emended
in the present book. For the theoretical study of some problems of
Latin Syntax HAASE'S Vorlesungen uber lateinische Sprachwissenschaft
(1880) should not be overlooked. Since the appearance of the second
edition of SCHMALZ, in 1890, considerable progress has been made in
the various journals and other publications, as may be seen from
DEECKE'S summary in BURSIAN'S Jahresbericht for 1893. Every effort
has been made to incorporate in this grammar the main results of
these studies as far as practicable. We may also draw attention to
the following important articles, among others, some of which are
mentioned in the books above referred to :
WOLFFLIN'S numerous articles in the Archiv ; THIELMANN'S articles
in the Archiv on habSre with Perfect Participle Passive, and on the
Reciprocal Relation ; LANDGRAF'S articles on the Figura Etymologica,
in the second volume of the Acta Seminarii Erlangensis, and on the
Future Participle and the Final Dative, in the Archiv; BALE'S treatise
on The Cum Constructions, attacking the theories of HOFFMANN (Latein-
ische Zeitpartikeln, 1874) and LUBBERT (Die Syntax von Quom, 1869),
PREFACE. V
HOFFMANN'S reply to HALE (1891), and WETZEL'S Der Streit zwischen
HOFFMANN und HALE (1892) ; DAHL'S Die lateinische Partikel ut (1882),
with GUTJAHR-PROBST'S Der Oebrauch von ut bei Terenz (1888) ; ZIM-
MERMANN'S article on quod und quia im alteren Latein (1880) ; SCHERER'S
article on quando, in Studemund's Studien ; MORRIS'S articles on the
Sentence Question in Plautus and Terence in the A.J.P. (vols. x. and
xi.) ; HALE'S articles on the Sequence of Tenses in the A.J.P. (vols. viii.
and ix.), containing a discussion of the earlier Literature ; ELMER'S
articles on the Latin Prohibitive in A.J.P. (vol. xv.)
A bibliography of the treatises on Prosody and Versification may
be found in GLEDITSCH'S treatise in the second volume of MULLER'S
Handbuch ; this, with PLESSIS' Metrique Orecque et Latine (1889), has
been made the basis of the chapter on Prosody ; but in the treatment
of early metres, regard has been had to KLOTZ (Altromische JUetrik,
1890), and to LINDSAY'S recent papers on the Saturnian in the A.J.P.
(vol. xiv.). In the matter of the order of words we have followed
WEIL'S treatise on the Order of Words, translated by SUPER (1887).
The question of the correct measurement of hidden quantities is
still an unsettled one in Latin ; for the sake of consistency the usage
of MARX, Hulfsbuchlein fur die Aussprache der lateinischen Vokale
in positionslangen Silben (2d edition, 1889) has been followed.
The quotations have been made throughout from the Teubner Text
editions except as follows : Plautus is cited from the Triumvirate
edition of RITSCHL ; Vergil from the Editio Maior of RIBBECK ; Ovid
and Terence from the Tauchnitz Texts ; Horace from the Editio Minor
of KELLER and HOLDER ; Lucretius from the edition of MUNRO;
Ennius and Lucilius from the editions of L. MULLER ; fragmentary
Scenic Poets from the edition of RIBBECK. Special care has been
taken to make the quotations exact both in spelling and wording ; and
any variation in the spelling of individual words is therefore due to
the texts from which the examples are drawn.
Where it has been necessary to modify the quotations in order to
make them suitable for citation, we have enclosed within square
brackets words occurring in different form in the text, and in paren-
theses words that have been inserted ; where the passage would not
yield to such treatment, Cf. has been inserted before the reference.
We have not thought it necessary to add the references in the Prosody
except in the case of some of the citations from early Latin.
In the spelling of Latin words used out of quotation, as a rule u
and v have been followed by o rather than by u ; but here the require-
ments of clearness and the period of the language have often been
allowed to weigh. Otherwise we have followed in the main BRAM<
BACH'S Hulfsbuchlein fur lateinische Rechtschreibung (translation by
MCCABE, 1877). G. L.
CONTENTS
ETYMOLOGY.
SECTION
Letters and Syllables . 1-15
Alphabet, 1; Vowels, 2, 3; Diphthongs, 4; Conso-
nants, 6, 7 ; Phonetic Variations, 8, 9 ; Syllables, 10,
11 ; Quantity, 12-14 ; Accentuation, 15.
Parts of Speech 16
Inflection of the Substantive 17-71
Definitions, 18 ; Gender, 19-21 ; Number, 22 ;
Cases, 23-25 ; Declensions, 26 ; Endings, 27 ; First
Declension, 29, 30 ; Second Declension, 31-34 ; Third
Declension, 35-60 ; Fourth Declension, 61, 62 ; Fifth
Declension, 63, 64 ; Greek Substantives, 65, 66 ; Ir-
regular Substantives, 67-71.
Inflection of the Adjective 72-90
Definition, 72 ; First and Second Declension, 73-
76; Pronominal Adjectives, 76; Third Declension,
77-83 ; Irregular Adjectives, 84, 85 ; Comparison of
Adjectives, 86-90.
Adverbs 91 93
Formation of Adverbs, 91, 92 ; Comparison, 93.
Numerals 94-98
Cardinals, 94 ; Ordinals, 94 ; Distributives, 97 ;
Adverbs, 98.
Pronouns ...
Personal, 100-102 ; Determinative, 103 ; Demon-
strative, 104 ; Eelative, 105 ; Interrogative, 106 ; In-
definites, 107; Adjectives, 108; Correlative, 109-111.
Inflection of the Verb 112-175
Definitions, 112, 113; Endings, 114, 115; Inflection
of ease, 116, 117; of prodesse, 118; of posse, 119. Reg-
ular Verbs, 120-167; Division, 120; Rules for forming
Tenses, 121. First Conjugation, 122; Second Conju-
gation, 123, 124; Third Conjugation, 125,126; Fourth
viii CONTENTS.
SECTION
Conjugation, 127 ; Deponents, 128 ; Periphrastic,
129; Notes, 130, 131. Formation of the Stems, 132-
135; Change in Conjugation, 136; List of Verbs,
137-167. Irregular Verbs, 168-174; Ire, 169, 2; quire,
nequlre, 170; ferre, 171; edere, 172; fieri, 173; velle,
n5lle, malle, 174; Defective Verbs, 175.
Formation of Words 176-200
Simple Words, 179-192; Substantives, 180, 181;
Adjectives, 182; Substantives without Suffixes, 183;
Suffixes, 184-189; Verbs, 190-192 ; Compound Words,
193-200; Substantives, 194-198; Verbs, 199, 200.
SYNTAX.
Simple Sentence . 202-471
Subject, 203, 204; Predicate, 205-209; Concord,
210, 211; Voices, 212-221. Tenses, 222-252; Present,
227-230; Imperfect, 231-234; Perfect, 235-240; Plu-
perfect, 241; Future, 242, 243; Future Perfect, 244,
245; Periphrastic, 246-251; Tenses in Letters, 252.
Moods, 253-283; Indicative, 254; Subjunctive, 255-
265 ; Imperative, 266-275 ; Tenses in Moods and Verbal
Substantives, 276-283.
Simple Sentence Expanded. 284-471
Multiplication of the Subject . . . . . . 285-287
Qualification of the Subject .'..... 288-325
Adjectives, 289-303; Numerals, 292-295; Compara-
tives and Superlatives, 296-303: Pronouns, 304-319;
Personal. 304; Demonstrative, 305-307; Determina-
tive and Reflexive, 308-311 ; Possessive, 312 ; Indefi-
nite, 313-319; Apposition, 320-325; Predicative Attri-
bution and Apposition, 325.
Multiplication of Predicate 326
Qualification of Predicate 327-449
The Cases 328-418
Accusative, 328-343; Dative, 344-359; Genitive,
360-383; Ablative, 384-410; Locative, 411; Preposi-
tions, 412-418; with Accusative, 416; with Ablative,
417; with Accusative and Ablative, 418.
Infinitive 419-424
Subject, 422; Object, 423; Predicate, 424.
CONTENTS. IX
SECTION
Gerund and Gerundive 425-433
Genitive, 428; Dative, 429; Accusative, 430; Abla-
tive, 431 ; with Prepositions, 432, 433.
Supine 434-436
Accusative, 435; Ablative, 430.
Participles 437, 438
Adverbs 439-449
Negatives, 441-449.
Incomplete (Interrogative) Sentence 450-471
Direct Simple Questions, 453-457; Direct Disjunc-
tive Questions, 458, 459 ; Indirect Questions, 460;
Moods in Direct, 402-466; Moods in Indirect, 467.
Compound Sentence 472-670
Coordinate Sentence 473-503
Copulative, 474-482; Adversative, 483-491 ; Dis-
junctive, 492-497; Causal and Illative, 498-503.
Subordinate Sentences ....... 504-670
Moods in, 508; Sequence of Tenses, 509-519; Re-
flexive in, 520-522.
Object Sentences 523-537
Introduced by quod, 524, 525 ; in Accusative and
Infinitive, 526, 527, 532-535; in Nominative and
Infinitive, 528; in Participle, 536, 537.
Causal Sentences ........ 538-542
Introduced by quod, quia, etc., 539-541 ; by quod,
with verbs of Emotion, 542.
Sentences of Design and Tendency .... 543-558
Final, 544-550; Pure Final, 545; Complementary
Final, 546-549; After verbs of Fear, 550.
Consecutive, 551; Pure Consecutive, 552; Comple-
mentary Consecutive, 553-557; Exclamatory Ques-
tions, 558.
Temporal Sentences 559-588
Antecedent Action, 561-567; Iterative Action, 566,
567; Contemporaneous Action, 568-573; Subsequent
Action, 574-577 ; Sentences with cum, 578-588.
Conditional Sentences 589-602
Logical, 595; Ideal, 596; Unreal, 597; Incomplete,
598-601 ; Of Comparison, 602.
Concessive Sentences .... 603-609
X CONTENTS.
SECTION
Relative Sentences . . 610-637
Concord, 614-621 ; Tenses, 622, 623 ; Moods, 624-
637.
Comparative Sentences 638-644
Correlative, 642 ; with atque or ac, 643 ; with quam,
644.
The Abridged Sentence 645-663
Historical Infinitive, 647 ; Gratis Obllqua, 648 ;
Moods in, 650-652; Tenses in, 653-655; Conditional
Sentences in, 656-659 : Pronouns, 660 ; Partial Ob-
liquity, 662, 663.
Participial Sentences 664-670
Arrangement of Words and Clauses .... 671-687
Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric 688-700
Principal Rules of Syntax . • . . Pp. 437-444
PROSODY.
Quantity 702-717
General Rules, 702-706 : of Final Syllables, 707-
713; of Stem Syllables, 714 ; of Compounds, 715 ; in-
Early Latin, 716, 717.
Figures of Prosody 718-728
Versification 729-827
Definition, 729-754 ; Versus Italicus, 755 ; Saturnian
Verse, 756; Iambic Rhythms, 757-767; Trochaic
Rhythms, 768-776 ; Anapaestic Rhythms, 777-782;
Dactylic Rhythms, 783-789 ; Logacedic Rhythms,
790-805 ; Cretic and Bacchic Rhythms, 806-814 ;
Ionic Rhythms, 815-819 ; Compound Verses, 820-
823 ; Cantica, 824, 825 ; Metres of HORACE, 826, 827.
PAGES
Appendix 491-493
Roman Calendar, Roman Weights and Measures,
Roman Money, Roman Names.
Index of Verbs 494-502
General Index . . 503-546
LATIN GRAMMAR.
ETYMOLOGY.
Alphabet.
1. THE Latin alphabet has twenty-three letters :
ABCDEFGHI KLM NOPQRSTVXYZ
REMARKS. — i. The sounds represented by C and K were originally
distinct, C having the sound of G, but they gradually approximated
each other, until C supplanted K except in a few words, such as
Kalendae, Kaeso, which were usually abbreviated, Kal., K. The orig-
inal force of C is retained only in C. (for Gains) and Cn. (for Gnaeus).
2. J, the consonantal form of I, dates from the middle ages. V repre-
sented also the vowel u in the Latin alphabet ; and its resolution into
two letters — V for the consonant, and U for the vowel — also dates from
the middle ages. For convenience, V and U are still distinguished in
this grammar.
3. Y and Z were introduced in the time of Cicero to transliterate
Greek v and J. In early Latin « was represented by u (occasionally
by i or oi), and J by ss or s. Z had occurred in the earliest times, but
had been lost, and its place in the alphabet taken by G, which was
introduced after C acquired the sound of K.
NOTE. — The Latin names for the letters were : a, be, ce, de, e, ef, ge, ha, i, ka, el,
em, en, o, pe, qu (= cu), er, es, te, U, ex (ix), to be pronounced according to the
rules given ia 3, 7. For Y the sound was used, for Z the Greek name (zSta).
Vowels.
2. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, (y) ; and are divided :
1. According to their quality (i.e., the position of the organs used
in pronunciation), into
guttural (or back), a, o, u ; palatal (or front), e, i, (y).
2. According to their quantity or prolongation (i. e., the time
required for pronunciation), into
**, 1512 long' ( ~~ ) ; short' ( w )'
2 VOWELS — DIPHTHONGS — CONSONANTS.
REMARK. — Vowels whose quantity shifts in poetry are called com-
mon (see 13), and are distinguished thus :
^, by preference short ; ^, by preference long.
3, Sounds of the Vowels.
a = a in father. o = o in bone.
5 = e in prey. u = oo in moon.
I = i in caprice. y = u in sur (French), German fl.
REMARK. — The short sounds are only less prolonged in pronuncia-
tion than the long sounds, and have no exact English equivalents.
Diphthongs.
4. There are but few diphthongs or double sounds in Latin. The
theory of the diphthong requires that both elements be heard in a slur.
The tendency in Latin was to reduce diphthongs to simple sounds ;
for example, in the last century of the republic ae was gliding into e,
which took its place completely in the third century A. D. H«nce
arose frequent variations in spelling : as glaeba and glSba, sod; so
oboedire and obedire, obey ; faenum (foemun) and fSnum, hay.
ae = aye (ah-eh). ei = ei in feint (drawled).
oe = oy in boy. eu = eu in Spanish de«da (Sh-oo).
au = ou in OUT. (ui = we, almost).
NOTE.— Before the time of the Gracchi we find ai and oi instead of ae and oe.
5. The sign •• (Diwresis — Greek =separatwri) over the second vowel
shows that each sound is to be pronounced separately ; S8r, air ;
Oenomatis, aloe.
Consonants.
6. Consonants are divided :
1. According to the principal organs by which they are pronounced,
into
Labials (lip-sounds) : b, p, (ph), f, v, m.
Dentals (tooth-sounds): d, t, (tb.), 1, n, r, s.
Gutturals (throat-sounds) : g, c, k, qu, (ch), h, n (see 7).
NOTE.— Instead of dental and guttural, the terms lingual and palatal axe often used.
2. According to their prolongation, into
A. Semi-vowels : of which
1, m, n, r, are liquids (m and n being nasals).
h is a breathing.
8 is a sibilant.
CONSONANTS — PHONETIC VARIATIONS. 3
B. Mutes : to which belong
P-mutes, p, b, (ph), f, labials.
T-mutes, t, d, (th), dentals.
K-mutes, k, c, qu, g, (ch), gutturals.
Those on the same line are said to be of the same organ. .
Mutes are further divided into
Tenues (thin, smooth) : p, t, k, c, qu, hard (surd).
Mediae (middle) : b, d, g, soft (sonant).
(Asplratae (aspirate, rough): ph, th, ch,] aspirate.
Those on the same line are said to be of the same order.
The aspirates were introduced in the latter part of the second cen-
tury B. C. in the transliteration of Greek words, and thence extended to
some pure Latin words ; as, pulcher, Gracchus.
3. Double consonants are : z = dz in acfee ; x — cs (ks), gs ; i and u
between two vowels are double sounds, half vowel, half consonant.
Sounds of the Consonants.
7. The consonants are sounded as in English, with the following
exceptions :
C is hard throughout = k.
Ch is not a genuine Latin combination (6, 2). In Latin words it is a
k ; in Greek words a kh, commonly pronounced as ch in German.
G is hard throughout, as in get, give.
H at the beginning of a word is but slightly pronounced ; in the
middle of a word it is almost imperceptible.
I consonant (J) has the sound of a broad y ; nearly like y in yule.
N has a guttural nasal sound before c, g, q, as in anchor, anguish.
Qu = kw (nearly) ; before o, qu = c. In early Latin qu was not fol-
lowed by u. Later, when o was weakened to u, qu was replaced by c ;
thus quoin became cum. Still later qu replaced c, yielding quum.
E is trilled.
8 and X are always hard, as in hiss, aa;e.
T is hard throughout ; never like t in nation.
TT consonant (V) is pronounced like the vowel, but with a slur. In
the third century A. D. it had nearly the sound of our w. In Greek it
was frequently transliterated by Ofi ; so OvaXe'pios = Valerius.
Phonetic Variations in Vowels and Consonants.
8. Vowels.
i. Weakening. — In the formation of words from roots or stems
short vowels show a tendency to weaken ; that is, a tends to become e
4 PHONETIC VARIATIONS.
and then i, or o and then u, while o tends towards e or i, and u towards i
This occurs most frequently in compound words, to a less degree in
words formed by suffixes. Diphthongs are less frequently weakened
and long vowels very rarely. The principal rules for these changes are
as follows, but it must be remembered that to all there are more or less
frequent exceptions :
A. — i. In the second part of compound words, and in reduplicated
words, the root-vowel a is weakened to 6, which usually passes over
into i in open syllables (11, R.), and often to fi before 1 and labial
mutes : c5n-scend5 (scando) ; con-cido (cado) ; d5-sulto (salt5) ; fefelll (falls).
2. As final vowel of the stem a is weakened in the first part of a com-
pound word, usually to i, rarely to 6 or u: aquili-fer (aquila-) ; causi-dicus
(causa-). 3. In or before suffixes, a becomes I: domi-tus (doma-).
NOTE.— A frequently resists change, especially in verbs of the First and Second
Conjugations : as, sg-parare (parare) ; circum-iacere (iacere) ; so satis-facere
(facere) and others.
E. — i. In the second part of compound words, root vowel 6 is usu-
ally retained in a close (11, E.) syllable, and weakened to I in an open
syllable ; but it is invariably retained before r : in-flecto (fleets) ; ob-
tineo (teneS) ; ad-verto (verto). 2. In or before suffixes, and in the final
syllable of a word, it also becomes I : geni-tor (gene-) ; un-decim (decem).
I. — At the end of a word I is changed to 6 : mare (mari).
0. — i. In composition final stem-vowel 5 is usually weakened to I ;
before labials sometimes to u : agri-cola (agro-) ; auru-fex (usually auri-
fex). 2. In suffixes, and in final syllables, it is weakened to I : amlci-tia
(amico-) ; gracili-s (also gracilu-s).
TT. — In composition final stem-vowel u is usually weakened to I;
the same weakening occurs sometimes within a word or before a suffix :
mani-festuB (also manu-fSstus) ; lacrima (early lacruma).
AE, ATT. — In the second part of a compound word root-diphthong ae
is usually weakened to I, but often there is no change ; au is occasion-
ally changed to fl : ex-qulro (quaerS) ; con-cludS (claudo).
2. Omission. — Vowels are frequently omitted both in simple and
compound words, either within the word (syncope) or at the end (apo-
cope) : dextera and dextra ; princeps (for primceps, from prlmiceps) ; pergS
(for perrego) ; ut (utl) ; neu (neve).
3. Epenthesis. — Vowels are sometimes inserted to ease the pronun-
ciation, but usually before liquids or in foreign words : ager (agro-)
see 31 ; DaphinS (= Daphne) ; drachuma (= drachma).
4. Assimilation. — Two vowels in adjoining syllables tend to become
like each other; this assimilation is usually regressive (i. e., of the
first to the second), especially when 1 separates them ; it is rarely pro-
gressive. Compare facilis with facul, familia with famulus, bene with bonus.
PHONETIC VARIATIONS. 5
5. A vowel before a liquid tends to become u, less often o or e :
adulescens and adolescens ; vulgus and volgus ; decumus (decem) ; com-
pare tempus with temporis ; peperi (from pari5), etc.
9. Consonants.
1. Assimilation. — When two consonants come together in Latin,
they tend to assimilate one to the other. This assimilation is usu-
ally regressive ; sometimes it is progressive. It is either complete, that
is, the two consonants become the same ; or partial, that is, the one
is made of the same order or same organ as the other. These changes
occur both in inflection and in composition, but they are especially
noteworthy in the last consonant of prepositions in composition.
Scrip-turn for scrib-tum (regressive partial) ; ac-cedere for ad-c5dere
(regressive complete) ; cur-sum for cur-tum (progressive partial) ; celer-
rimus for celer-simus (progressive complete).
2. Partial Assimilation. — (a) The sonants g and b, before the surd t,
or the sibilant s, often become surds (c, p ) ; the surds p, c, t before
liquids sometimes become sonants (b, g, d) ; the labials p, b before n
become m; the labial m before the gutturals c, q, g, h, i (j), the dentals
t, d, s, and the labials f, v, becomes n ; the dental n before labials p, b,
m, becomes m ; rgc-tum (for r6g-tum) ; scrip-si (for scrlb-si) ; seg-mentum
(for sec-mentum) ; som-nus (for sop-mis) ; prin-ceps (for prim-ceps).
NOTE. — Similar is the change of q (qu) to c before t or s : COC-tum (for coqu-tum).
(b) After 1 and r, t of the suffixes tor, tus, turn, becomes a by progres-
sive assimilation : cur-sum (for cur-tum).
3. Complete Assimilation. — There are many varieties, but the most
important principle is that a mute or a liquid tends to assimilate to
a liquid and to a sibilant : puella (puer) ; cur-rere (for cur-sere) ; cSs-si
(for c6d-si) ; corolla (corona), etc.
4. Prepositions. — Ab takes the form a before m or v, and in a-ful ;
appears as au in au-fero, au-fugio ; as abs before c, t ; as as before
p. Ad is assimilated before c, g, 1, p, r, s, t, with more or less
regularity ; before gn, sp, sc, st, it often appears as a. Ante appears
rarely as anti. Cum appears as com before b, m, p ; con before c, d, f, g,
i, q, s, v ; co before gn, n ; assimilated sometimes before 1 and r. Ex
becomes S before b, d, g, i (j), 1, m, n, r, v ; ef or ec, before f. In usually
becomes im before b, m, p ; before 1, r it is occasionally assimilated ;
the same holds good of the negative prefix in. Ob is usually assimi-
lated before c, f, g, p ; appears as o in o-mitto, o-perio, obs in obs-olesco,
and os in ostendo. Sub is assimilated before c, f, g, p, r ; appears as sus
in a few words, as sus-cipio ; occasionally su before s, as su-spicio. Trans
sometimes becomes tra before d, i (j), n ; tran before s. Amb- (insepa-
rable) loses b before a consonant, and am is sometimes assimilated. Cir-
cum sometimes drops m before i. Dis becomes dif before f ; dir before a
6 PHONETIC VARIATIONS — SYLLABLES.
vowel ; di before consonants, except c, p, q, t, s, followed by a vowel,
when it is usually unchanged. The d of red and s6d is usually dropped
before consonants.
NOTE.— In early Latin assimilation is much less common than in the classical
period.
5. Dissimilation. — To avoid the harshness of sound when two sylla-
bles begin with the same letter, the initial letter of the one is often
changed ; this is true especially of liquids, but occasionally of other
letters : singu-la-ris (for singu-la-lis) ; men-dig (for medl-die).
KOTK. — This principle often regulates the nse of -bnun or -bulum, and of -cram
or -culum in word formation (181, 6) : compare perlculum with simulacrum.
6. Omission. — (a) When a word closes with a doubled consonant or
a group of consonants, the final consonant is regularly dropped in
Latin ; sometimes after the preceding consonant has been assimilated
to it. In the middle of a word, after a long syllable, ss and 11 are sim-
plified ; 11 is sometimes simplified after a short vowel, which is then
lengthened if the syllable is accented (compensatory lengthening) ; but
if the syllable is unaccented, such lengthening need not take place. In
this case other doubled consonants may also be simplified.
fel (for fell) ; lac (for lact) ; vigil (for vigils) ; lapis (for lapid-s, lapiss) ;
mlsi (for mis-si) ; villa and vilicus ; but currus and curulis.
NOTE. — X is retained, even after 1 and r, as in calx, arx ; also ps, bs, as in stirps,
urbs ; ms is found in hiems only.
(&) In the tendency to easier pronunciation consonants are often
dropped both at the beginning and in the middle of a word :
stimulus (for stigmulus) ; pastor (for pasctor) ; ai5 (for ahi8) ; natus (for
gnatus, retained in early Latin, rarely later) ; latus (for tlatus), etc.
7. Epenthesis. — Between m and 1, m and s, m and t, a p is generated :
ez-em-p-lum (ex-im5) ; com-p-sl (com.5) ; em-p-tus (em5).
8. Metathesis or transposition of consonants occurs sometimes in
Latin, especially in Perfect and Supine forms : cerno ; Pf . crg-vl, etc.
Syllables.
10. The syllable is the unit of pronunciation ; it consists
of a vowel, or a vowel and one or more consonants.
A word has as many syllables as it contains separate vowels
and diphthongs.
In dividing a word into syllables, a consonant, between
two vowels, belongs to the second : a-mo, I love ; li-xa, a
sutler.
SYLLABLES — QUANTITY. 7
Any combination of consonants that can begin a word
(including mn, under Greek influence) belongs to the fol-
lowing vowel ; in other combinations the first consonant
belongs to the preceding vowel : a-sper, rough; fau-stus,
lucky ; li-bri, looks ; a-nmis, river.
REMARKS. — i. The combinations incapable of beginning a word are
(a) doubled consonants : sic-cus, dry ; (b) a liquid and a consonant :
al-mus, fostering ; am-bo, both ; an-guis, snake ; ar-bor, tree.
2. Compounds are treated by the best grammarians as if their parts
were separate words : ab-igo, I drive off ; rfis-publica, commonwealth.
11. The last syllable of a word is called the ultimate
(ultima, last) ; the next to the last the penult (paene, almost,
and ultima) ; the one before the penult, the antepenult
(ante, before, and paenultima).
REMARK. — A .syllable is said to be open when it ends with a vowel ;
close, when it ends with a consonant.
Quantity.
12. i. A syllable is said to be long by nature, when it
contains a long vowel or diphthong : mos, custom ; caelum,
heaven.
REMARKS. — r. A vowel before nf, ns, gm, gn, is long by nature :
Infelix, unlucky ; mensa, table ; agnien, train ; agnus, lamb. In many
cases, however, the n has disappeared from the written word ; so in
some substantival terminations : 5s (Ace. PI., 2d decl.), fis (Ace. PI.,
4th decl.) ; in adjectives in osus (f5rm5sus, shapely, for fSrmSnsus) ; in
the numerical termination Ssimus (= Snsimus). See 95, N. 5.
2. Before i consonant (j) a vowel is long by nature : PompSius,
Pompey ; except in compounds of iugum, yoke (bl-iugus, two-horse),
and in a few other words.
NOTE.— From about 134 to about 74 B. C. a, 8, u, were often represented by aa, 66,
liu ; I by ei. From the time of Augustus to the second century I was indicated by a
lengthened I. From Sulla's time until the third century long vowels (rarely, however, I)
were indicated by an Apex (').
2. A syllable is said to be long by position, when a short
vowel is followed by two or more consonants, or a double
consonant : ars, art ; cdllum, neck ; abrumpo, / break off ;
p6r mare, through the sea ; nex, murder.
8 ACCENTUATION.
3. A syllable is said to be short when it contains a short
vowel, which is not followed by two or more consonants :
Idcus, place ; tabula, picture.
REMARK. — A vowel is short by nature when followed by another
vowel, or by nt, nd: d6us, God; innocentia, innocence; amandus, to be
loved.
13. A syllable ending in a short vowel, followed by a mute
with 1 or r, is said to be common (anceps, doubtful) : ten.6-
brae, darkness.
REMARK. — In prose such syllables are always short. In poetry they
were short in early times, common in the Augustan period.
14. Every diphthong, and every vowel derived from a
diphthong, or contracted from other vowels, is long: saevus,
cruel; conclude, I shut up (from claudo, I shut); cogo (from
co-ago), / drive together.
Accentuation.
15. i. Dissyllabic words have the accent or stress on the
penult : 6qu6s ( = equus), horse.
2. Polysyllabic words have the accent on the penult, when
the penult is long ; on the antepenult, when the penult is
short or common : mandare, to commit ; mandere, to chew ;
intigrum, entire; circumdare, to surround; sup6rstites,
survivors.
REMARKS. — i. The little appendages (enclitics), que, ve, ne, add an
accent to the ultimate of words accented on the antepenult : luminaque,
and lights ; fluminave, or rivers ; v6merene 1 from a ploughshare ? Dis-
syllables and words accented on the penult are said to shift their accent
to the final syllable before an enclitic : egomet, I indeed ; amareve, or
to love, ; but it is more likely that the ordinary rule of accentuation
was followed.
2. Compounds (not prepositional) of facere and dare retain the
accent on the verbal form : calefacit, venumdare.
3. Vocatives and genitives of substantives in ius of the second de-
clension, as well as genitives of substantives in ium, retain the accent
on the same syllable as the nominative : Vergill.
NOTE.— Other exceptions will be noted as they occur. In the older language the
accent was not bounded by the antepenult : accipi5 taccipio1, concutio iccncutio).
PARTS OF SPEECH — INFLECTION.
Parts of Speech.
16. The Parts of Speech are the Noun (Substantive and
Adjective), the Pronoun, the Verb, and the Particles (Ad-
verb, Preposition, and Conjunction), defined as follows :
1 . The Substantive gives a name : vir, a man ; Codes,
Codes ; donum, a gift.
2. The Adjective adds a quality to the Substantive : bonus
vir, a good man.
3. The Pronoun points out without describing : hie, this ;
ille, that ; ego, /.
4. The Verb expresses a complete thought, whether asser-
tion, wish, or command ; amat, he loves ; amet, may he love ;
ama, love thou !
5. The Adverb shows circumstances.
6. The Preposition shows local relation.
7. The Conjunction shows connection.
REMARKS. — i. Substantive is short for noun-substantive, and ad-
jective for noun-adjective. Substantives are often loosely called nouns.
2. The Interjection is either a mere cry of feeling : Sh\ ah ! and does
not belong to language, or falls under one of the above-mentioned
classes.
3. The Particles are mainly mutilated forms of the noun and pro-
noun.
NOTES.— 1. The difference between substantive and adjective is largely a difference
of mobility ; that is, the substantive is fixed in its application and the adjective is general.
2. Noun and pronoun have essentially the same inflection ; but they are commonly
separated, partly on account of the difference in signification, partly on account of
certain peculiarities of the pronominal forme.
Inflection.
17. Inflection (Inflexio, bending) is that change in the
form of a word (chiefly in the end) which shows a change in
the relations of that word. The noun, pronoun, and verb are
inflected ; the particles are not capable of further inflection.
The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called declension,
and nouns and pronouns are said to be declined.
The inflection of verbs is called conjugation, and verbs
are said to be conjugated.
IO THE SUBSTANTIVE — GENDER.
The Substantive.
18. A Substantive is either concrete or abstract ; concrete
when it gives the name of a person or thing ; abstract when
it gives the name of a quality ; as amicitia, friendship.
Concrete substantives are either proper or common :
Proper when they are proper, or peculiar, to certain per-
sons, places, or things: Horatius, Horace; Neapolis, Naples;
Padus, Po.
Common when they are common to a whole class :
dominus, a lord ; urbs, a city ; amnis, a river.
Gender of Substantives.
19. For the names of animate beings, the gender is deter-
mined by the signification ; for things and qualities, by the
termination.
Names of males are masculine ; names of females, femi-
nine. Masculine : Romulus; luppiter; vir, man; equus, horse.
Feminine : Cornelia; luno ; femina, woman; equa, mare.
20. Some classes of words, without natural gender, have
their gender determined by the signification :
1. All names of months and winds, most names of rivers,
and many names of mountains are masculine ; as : Aprllis,
April, the opening month ; Aquilo, the north wind; Albis,
the River Elbe ; Athos, Mount Athos.
REMARKS. — i. Names of months, winds, and rivers were looked
upon as adjectives in agreement with masculine substantives under-
stood (mgnsis, month ; ventns, wind ; fluvius, amnis, river).
2. Of the rivers, Allia, Lethe, Matrona, Sagra, Styx are feminine ;
Albula, Acheron, Garumna vary, being sometimes masculine, some-
times feminine.
3. Of the mountains, Alpgs, the Alps, is feminine ; so, too, sundry
(Greek) names in a (G. ae), 6 (G. 5s) : Aetna (usually), Calpe",
Cyllene, Hybla, Ida, Ossa (usually), Oeta (usually), Bhodope, PholoS, PyrSne,
and Carambis, Peloris. Pelion and SSracte (usually), and names of moun-
tains in a (G. orum), as Maenala (G. Maenalorum), are neuter.
II. Names of countries (terrae, fern.), islands (insulae,
fern.), cities (urbes, fern.), plants (plantae, fern.}, and trees
GENDER — NUMBER, II
(arbores, fern.), are feminine: Aegyptus, Egypt ; Rhodus,
Rhodes ; pirus, a pear-tree ; abies, a fir-tree.
REMARKS. — i. Names of countries and islands in us (os) (Gr. i) are
masculine, except Aegyptus, Chius, Chersongsus, Cyprus, Delos, Epfrus,
Lemnos, Lesbos, Peloponnesus, Rhodus, Sanios, Bosporus (the country).
2. Many Greek names of cities follow the termination. Towards
the end of the republic many feminine names change the ending -us
to -urn and become neuter : Abydus and Abydum, Saguntus and
Saguntum.
3. Most names of trees with stems in -tro (N. -ter) are masculine :
oleaster, wild olive ; pinaster, wild pine. So also most shrubs : dumus,
bramble-bush ; rims, sumach. Neuter are acer, maple ; laser, a plant ;
papaver, poppy (also masc. in early Latin) ; r5bur, oak; siler, willow;
siser, sMrret (occasionally masc.) ; euber, cork-tree ; tuber, mushroom.
III. All indeclinable substantives, and all words and
phrases treated as indeclinable substantives, are neuter : fas,
right; a longum, a long; scire tuum, thy knowing ; triste
vale, a sad "farewell."
21. i. Substantives which have but one form for mascu-
line and feminine are said to be of common gender : clvis,
citizen (male or female) ; comes, companion ; iudex, judge.
2. Substantlva mobilia are words of the same origin, whose
different terminations designate difference of gender : ma-
gister, master, teacher ; magistra, mistress ; servus, serva,
slave (masc. and fern.) ; victor, victrlx, conqueror (masc. and
fern.).
3. If the male and female of animals have but one desig-
nation, mas, male, and femina, female, are added, when it is
necessary to be exact : pavO mas (masculus), peacock ; pavO
femina, peahen. These substantives are called epicene
(eiriKoiva, utrlque generl communia, common to each
gender).
Number.
22. In Latin there are two numbers t the Singular,
denoting one ; the Plural, denoting more than one.
REMARK. — The Dual, denoting two, occurs in Latin only in two
words (duo, two; ambo, both), in the nominative and vocative of the
masculine and neuter.
12 CASES.
Cases.
23. In Latin there are six cases :
1. Nominative (Case of the Subject).
Answers : who 9 what ?
z. Genitive (Case of the Complement).
Answers : whose ? whereof ?
3. Dative (Case of Indirect Object or Personal Interest).
Answers : to whom ? for whom ?
4. Accusative (Case of Direct Object).
Answers : whom ? what ?
5. Vocative (Case of Direct Address).
6. Ablative (Case of Adverbial Eelation).
Answers : where, ? whence ? wherewith ?
NOTE.— These six cases are the remains of a larger number. The Locative (answers :
where ?), is akin to the Dative, and coincident with it in the 1st and 3d Declensions ;
in the 2d Declension it is lost in the Genitive ; it is often blended with the Ablative in
form, regularly in syntax. The Instrumental (answers: wherewith?), which is
found in other members of the family, is likewise merged in the Ablative.
24. i. According to their form, the cases are divided into
strong and weak : The strong cases are Nominative, Accusa-
tive, and Vocative. The weak cases are Genitive, Dative,
and Ablative.
2. According to their syntactical use, the cases are divided
into Casus Recti, or Independent Cases, and Casus ObliquI, or
Dependent Cases. Nominative and Vocative are Casus
Recti, the rest Casus ObliquI.
25. The case-forms arise from the combination of the case-
endings with the stem.
1. The stem is that which is common to a class of forma-
tions.
NOTES.— 1. The stem is often so much altered by contact with the case-ending, and
the case-ending so much altered by the wearing away of vowels and consonants,
that they can be determined only by scientific analysis. So in the paradigm mSnsa,
the stem is not mens, but mensa, the final a having been absorbed by the ending in
the Dative and Ablative Plural mensls. So -d, the ending of the Ablative Singular,
has nearly disappeared, and the locative ending has undergone many changes (5, Si, 1,
6). The " crude form " it is often impossible to ascertain.
2. The root is an ultimate stem, and the determination of the root belongs to com
DECLENSIONS. 13
parative etymology. The stem may be of any length, the root was probably a mono-
syllable. In penna the stem is penna- ; in pennula, pennula- ; in pennatulus,
pennatulo-; the root is PET (petna, pesna, penna), and is found in pet-ere, to fall
upon, to fly at ; Greek, ir£r-op<u, irrepov ; English, feather.
2. The case-endings are as follows, early forms being printed in
parenthesis :
So. — N.V. Wanting or in. f. -s ; n. -m. PL.— N.V. -es (eis, is); -i; n. -a.
G. -is (-os, -us, -es) ; -i. G. -um(om); -nun(som).
D. -I (-5, -ei). D. -bus ; -is.
Ac. -m, -em. Ac. -s (for -ns) ; n. -a.
Ab. Wanting (or -d) ; -e. Ab. -bus ; -is.
Declensions.
26. There are five declensions in Latin, which are charac-
terised by the final letter of their respective stems (stem-
characteristic).
For practical purposes and regularly in lexicons they are also im-
properly distinguished by the ending of the Genitive Singular.
STEM CHARACTERISTIC. GENITIVE SINGULAR.
I. ' a (a). ae.
II. 6. I.
III. i, fi, a consonant. is.
IV. a. us.
V. 6. 8L
REMARK. — The First, Second, and Fifth Declensions are called
Vowel Declensions ; the Third and Fourth, which really form but one,
the Consonant Declension, i and u being semi-consonants.
27. The case-endings in combination with the stem-char-
acteristics give rise to the following systems of terminations :
SINGULAR.
I. II. III.
N. a. us (os) ; wanting ; um (om). s ; wanting.
G. ae (as, ai, ai). I (el). is (us, es).
D. ae (Si). 5 (oi). I (el, i).
Ac. am. um (om). em, im.
V. a. e ; wanting ; um (om). s.
Ab. a (ad). 5 (6d). e, I (ed, id).
FIEST DECLENSION.
IV.
V.
N. V.
us ; u.
6S.
G.
us (uos, uis).
e% 6 (es).
D.
ul, u (uei).
el, e.
Ac.
urn; u.
em.
Ab.
u.
6.
PLURAL.
I.
II.
III.
N. V.
ae.
I (oe, e, ei) ; a.
Ss (eis, is) ; a, ia.
G.
arum.
um (om), orum.
um, ium.
D. A.
Is (els) ; abus.
Is (eis), ibus.
ibus.
Ac.
as.
6s; a.
Is, es ; a, ia.
IV.
V.
N. V.
us (ues, uus) ; ua.
6s.
G.
num.
erum.
D. A.
ubus, ibus.
6bus.
Ac.
us; ua.
es.
NOTE. — Final -s and -m are frequently omitted in early inscriptions.
28. General Rules of Declension.
I. For the strong cases :
Neuter substantives have the Nominative and the Vocative like the
Accusative ; in the Plural the strong cases always end in a.
In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions the strong cases are
alike in the Plural.
The Vocative is like the Nominative, except in the Singular of the
Second Declension when the Nominative ends in -us.
II. For the weak cases :
The Dative and the Ablative Plural have a common form.
FIRST DECLENSION.
29. The stem ends in &, which is weakened from an
original a. The Nominative has no ending.
SG. — N. mensa (f .), the table, a table.
G. mensae, of the table, of a table.
D. mgnsae, to, for the table, to, for a table.
Ac. mensam, the table, a table.
V. mensa, 0 table ! table !
Ab. mensa, from, with, by, the table, from, with, by, a table.
SECOND DECLENSION. 1 5
PL. — N. mSnsae, the tables, tables.
G. mensarum, of the tables, of tables.
D. mensis, to, for the tables, to, for tables.
Ac. me"nsas, the tables, tables.
V. mensae, 0 tables! tables!
Ab. mSnsIs, from, with, by, the tables, from, with, by, tables.
REMARKS. — i. The early ending of the Gen., as, found in a few cases
m early poets, is retained in the classical period (but not in CAESAR or
LIVY) only in the form familias, of a family, in combination with pater,
father, mater, mother, filius, son, filia, daughter, viz. : paterfamilias,
materfamilias, filius familias, filia familias.
2. The Loc. Sing, is like the Genitive: Komae, at Rome; mflitiae,
abroad.
3. The Gen. PI. sometimes takes the form -urn instead of -arum;
this occurs chiefly in the Greek words amphora (amphora, measure of
tonnage), and drachma, franc — (Greek coin). The poets make frequent
use of this form in Greek patronymics in -da, -das, and compounds of
•cola (from colo, I inhabit) and -gena (from root gen, beget).
4. The ending -abus is found (along with the regular ending) in the
Dat. and Abl. PI. of dea, goddess, and filia, daughter. In late Latin
the use of this termination becomes more extended.
NOTES. — 1. A very few masc. substantives show Nom. Sing, in as in early Latin.
2. A form of the Gen. Sing, in al, subsequent to that in as, is found in early
inscriptions, and not unfrequently in early poets, but only here and there in classical
poetry (VERG., A., 3, 354, etc.) and never in classical prose.
3. The early ending of the Dat. al (sometimes contracted into 5), is found occa-
sionally in inscriptions throughout the whole period of the language.
4. The older ending of the Abl., ad, belongs exclusively to early Latin. Inscriptions
show els for Is in Dat. and Abl. PL, and once as in the Dat. Plural.
30. Rule of Gender. — Substantives of the First Declen-
sion are feminine, except when males are meant.
Hadria, the Adriatic, is masculine.
SECOND DECLENSION.
31. The stem ends in 6, which in the classical period is
weakened to u, except after u (vowel or consonant), where 6 is
retained until the first century A.D. In combination with
the case-endings it merges into 6 or disappears altogether.
In the Vocative (except in neuters) it is weakened to e.
The Nominative ends in s (m. and f.) and m (n.). But
many masculine stems in which the final vowel, 5, is preceded
by r, drop the (os) us and e of the Nominative and Vocative,
and insert 6 before the r if it was preceded by a consonant.
l6 SECOND DECLENSION.
32. i. Stems in -ro. The following stems in -ro do not drop the (os)
us and e of the Nom. and Voc. : ems, master ; hesperus, evening star ;
icterus, jaundice ; iuniperus, juniper ; morns, mulberry ; numerus, num-
ber; taurus, bull ; virus, venom; umerus, shoulder; uterus, womb.
NOTE.— Socerus is found in early Latin. Plautus uses uterum (n.) once.
2. In the following words the stem ends in -ero and the e is there-
fore retained throughout : adulter, adulterer ; gener, son-in-law; Liber,
god of wine ; puer, boy ; socer, father-in-law ; vesper, evening ; and in
words ending in -fer and -ger, from fer5, J bear, and gero, I carry, as,
signifer, standard-bearer, anniger, armor -bear er .
Also Ibfr and Celtibgr (names of nations) have in the Plural Iberl
and Celtiben,
33. Hortns (m.), garden; puer (m.), ~boy ; ager (m.),
field ; bellum (n.), war ; are thus declined :
So. — N. hortus, puer, ager, bellum,
G. hortl, puerl, agrl, belli,
D. horto, puerS, agr5, bello,
Ac. hortum, puerum, agrum, bellum,
V. horte, puer, ager, bellum,
Ab. horto. puer5. agr6. bells.
PL.— N. hortl, puerl, agrl, bella,
G. hortorum, puerorum, agrSrum, bellomm,
D. hortis, puerls, agrls, bellls,
Ac. hortos, pueros, agros, bella,
V. hortl, puerl, agrl, bella,
Ab. hortis. puerls. agrls. bellls.
REMARKS. — i. Stems in -io have Gen. Sing, for the most part in I until
the first century A. D., without change of accent : ingeni (N. ingenium),
of genius, Vergfll, of Vergil. See 15, R. 3.
2. Proper names in -ius (stems in -io) have Voc. in I, without change
of accent : Antonl, TullI, Gal, Vergfll. Filius, son, and genius, genius,
form their Voc. in like manner : fill, genl. In solemn discourse -us of
the Nom. is employed also for the Vocative. (See Liv. i. 24, 7.) So
regularly deus, God !
3. The Loc. Sing, ends in I (apparent Genitive), as BhodI, at Rhodes,
TarentI, at Tarentum.
4. In the Gen. PI. -urn instead of -5rum is found in words denoting
coins and measures ; as, nummum, of moneys (also -5rum) = sestertium, of
sesterces ; denarium (occasionally -6rum) ; talentum (occasionally -orum) ;
tetrachmum; medium (also -6mm), of measures; iugerum; medimnum;
stadium (also -Orum). Likewise in some names of persons : deum (also
THIRD DECLENSION. 1 7
•orom) ; fabrtun (in technical expressions ; as praefectns fabrum, other-
wise -orum) ; liberum (also -5rum) ; virum (poetical, except in technical
expressions, as triumvirum) ; socium (also -orum). Some other examples
are poetical, rare or late.
5. The Loc. PL is identical with the Dative : Delphis, at Delphi.
6. Deus, God, is irregular. In addition to the forms already men-
tioned, it has in Norn. PL del, dii, dl ; in Dat. and Abl. PL dels,
diis, clis.
NOTES.— 1. The ending -61 for -I in the Gen. Sing, is found only in inscriptions sub-
sequent to the third Punic War.
2. Puer, boy, forms Voc. puere in early Latin.
3. The original Abl. ending -d belongs to early inscriptions.
4. In early inscriptions the Norn. PL ends occasionally in 6s, els, Is : magistres
(for magistrl) vireis (for virl). The rare endings oe and g iploirume for plurimi)
and the not uncommon ending el belong to the same period.
5. Inscriptions often show els for is in Dat. and Abl. Plural.
34. Rule of Gender. — Substantives in -us are masculine ;
in -urn neuter.
EXCEPTIONS. — Feminine are : 1st. Cities and islands, as, Corinthus,
Samus. 3d. Most trees, as, fSgus, beech ; pirus, pear-tree. 3d. Many
Greek nouns, as, atomus, atom ; dialectus, dialect ; methodus, method ;
paragraphus, paragraph ; periodus, period. 4th. Alvus, belly (m. in
PLAUT.) ; colus (61, N. 5), distaff (also m.) ; humus, ground; varmus,
wheat-fan.
Neuters are : pelagus, sea ; virus, venom ; vulgus, the rabble (some-
times masculine).
THIRD DECLENSION.
35. i. The stem ends in a consonant, or in the close
vowels i and u.
2. The stems are divided according to their last letter,
called the stem-characteristic, following the subdivisions of
the letters of the alphabet :
I. — Consonant Stems. II. — Vowel Stems.
A. Liquid stems, ending in 1, m, n, r. 1. Ending in i.
B. Sibilant stems, ending in s. 2. Ending in u,
!1. Ending in a P-mute, b, p. (Compare the Fourth
2. Ending in a K-mute, g, c. Declension.)
3. Ending in a T-mute, d, t.
36. i. The Nominative Singular, masculine and femi-
nine, ends in s, which, however, is dropped after 1, n, r, s,
and combines with a K-mute to form x. The final vowel of
the stem undergoes various changes.
2
1 8 THIRD DECLENSION.
The Vocative is like the Nominative.
In the other cases, the endings are added to the unchanged
stem.
2. Neuters always form :
The Nominative without the case-ending s.
The Accusative and Vocative cases in both numbers like
the Nominative.
The Nominative Plural in &.
Notes on the Cases.
37. Singular.
1. GENITIVE.— In old Latin we find on inscriptions the endings -us (Gr. -o«) and
-es.
2. DATTVE. — The early endings of the Dat. are -el and -6. These were succeeded
by I after the second century B. C., 8 being retained in formulas like lure" dlcund5
(Liv., 42, 28, 6), in addition to the usual form.
3. ACCUSATIVE. — The original termination -im, in stems of the vowel declension,
loses ground, and stems of this class form their Ace. more and more in -em, after the
analogy of consonant stems. For the classical usage see 57, B. i.
4. ABLATIVE. — In inscriptions of the second and first centuries B. C. we find -el,
-I. and -e. But -el soon disappears, leaving e and I. In general e is the ending for the
consonant stems and I for the vowel. But as in the Ace., so in the Abl., the e makes
inroads on the i, though never to the same extent. (See 57, B. 2.) On the other
hand, some apparently consonant stems assume the ending i. Thus some in -as,
-atis: hereditatl (200 B. C.), aetatl (rare); liti (rare), supellectill (classical;
early e) ; also the liquid stems which syncopate in the (Jen., as imber. The ending
-d is rare and confined to early inscriptions.
5. LOCATIVE.— Originally coincident in form with the Dat, the Loc. of the Third
Declension was finally blended with Abl., both in form and in syntax. In the follow-
ing proper names the old form is frequently retained : ZarthaginJ, at Carthage, Sul-
moni, at Sulmo, Lacedaemonl, at Lacedaemon, Sicyoni, TroezSnl, Anxurl,
Tlburl. Also Acheruntl. In the case of all except Amur, Tibur, Acheruns, the
regular form is more common.
The following Loc. forms of common nouns are found : heri, loci, noctu (prin-
cipally in early Latin), orbi (Cic.), peregrl (early Latin), praefiscinl (early Latin),
riirl, temper! (the usual form in early Latin), vesperl. In all cases the Abl. form
in e is also found.
38. Plural.
1. NOMINATIVE. — Early Latin shows -Sis, -Is in the masc. and feminine. The latter
was usually confined to vowel stems, but also occurs occasionally in consonant stems
(ioudicls). Later the ending was -gs for all kinds of stems.
2. GENITIVE. — The ending -urn, uniting with the vowel in vowel stems, gives
-itun. But many apparently consonant stems show their original vowel form by tak-
ing -ium : (1) Many fern, stems in -tat- (N. tas) with -ium as well as -tun. (2) Mon-
osyllabic and polysyllabic stems in -t, -c, with preceding consonant. (3) Monosyllables
in -p and -b, sometimes with, sometimes without, a preceding consonant. (4) Stems in
-ss- ; see 48, B.
3. ACCUSATIVE. — Old Latin shows also -eis. The classical form is -Ss for conso-
nant and -Is for vowel stems. But -6s begins to drive out -Is in some vowel steins and
wholly supplants it in the early Empire. On the other hand, some apparently original
consonant stems show -Is in early Latin, but the cases are not always certain.
CONSONANT STEMS. IQ
I.-CONSONANT STEMS.
A.— Liquid Stems.
1. LIQUID STEMS IN 1.
39. Form the Nominative without s and fall into two
divisions* :
A. Those in which the stem characteristic is preceded by a vowel :
1. -al, -alls : sal (with compensatory lengthening), salt ; Punic
proper names like Adherbal, Hannibal.
2. -il, -His : mugil (mugilis is late), mullet ; pugil (pugilis in VARRO),
boxer ; vigil, watchman. -il, -His : sfl, ochre ; Tanaquil (with
shortened vowel), a proper name.
3 -ol, -olis : sol, sun.
4. -ult -ulis : consul, consul; exsul, exile; praesul, dancer.
B. Two neuter substantives with stems in -11, one of which is lost in
the Nominative : mel, mellis, honey ; fel, fellis, gall.
SG. — N. consul, consul (in.). PL. — N. consults, the consuls.
G. consults, G. consulum,
B. consull, D. cSnsulibus,
Ac. cSnsulem, Ac. consulSs,
V. consul, V. consulgs,
Ab. consule. Ab. consulibus.
Rules of Gender. — i. Stems in -1 are masculine.
EXCEPTIONS : Sfl, ochre, and sal, salt (occasionally, but principally in
the Sing.), are neuter.
2. Stems in -11 are neuter.
2. LIQUID STEMS IN m.
40. Nominative with s. One example only : hiem(p)s,
winter (f.) ; Genv Mem-is, Dat., hiem-I, etc.
3. LIQUID STEMS IN n.
41. Most masculine and feminine stems form the Nomi-
native Singular by dropping the stem-characteristic and
changing a preceding vowel to o.
* In the following enumerations of stem-varieties, Greek substantives are as a rule
omitted.
20
THIED DECLENSION.
Some masculine and most neuter steins retain the stem-
characteristic in the Nominative and change a preceding
i to e.
The following varieties appear :
1. -en, -enis : the masculine substantives lien, splen, spleen; r6n6e
(pi.), kidneys.
2. -Of -inis : homo, man; nemo, no one; turb8, whirlwind; Apollo,
Apollo. Also substantives in -dS (except praedo, G. -onis, robber) ; and
in -go (except harpago, Gr. -onis, grappling-hook ; ligo, G. -onis, mattock) ;
as, grando, hail ; virgo, virgin. -enf inis : the masc. substan-
tives flamen, priest; oscen (also f.), divining bird; pecten, comb; musical
performers, cornicen, fidicen, liticen, tiblcen, tubicen. Also many
neuters : as nomen, name.
3. -o (in early Latin o, in classical period weakened), -onis : leo,
lion; and about seventy others. -o, -onis : Saxo, Saxon (late).
4. Irregular formations : car§, G. carnis, flesh ; Ani5, G. Anienis, a
river ; Neri6, G. NSrienis, a proper name. Sanguls, blood, and pollis,
flour, drop the stem characteristic and add s to form nominative ; G.
sanguinis, pollinis.
42. MASCULINE.
So. — N. Ie6, lion(m.).
G. leonis,
D. leonl,
Ac. leonem,
V. leo,
Ab. leone,
PL.— N. leones,
G. leonum,
D. leonibos,
Ac. leones,
V. leonSs,
Ab. leonibus.
NOTE. — Early Latin shows homonem, etc., occasionally.
43. Rules of Gender. — i. Substantives in -C are mascu-
line, except car6, flesh, and those in -do, -go, and -io.
EXCEPTIONS. -Masculine are cardo, hinge; ordo, rank; harpago, grappling-
hook ; ligo, mattock ; marg5, border (occasionally fern, in late Latin) ; and concrete
nouns like pugio, dagger, titiS, firebrand, vespertilio, bat.
2. Substantives in -en (-men) are neuter. See exceptions,
41, i, 2.
FEMININE.
NEUTEK.
imago, likeness (f .).
nomen, name (n,>
imaginis,
nominis,
imaginl,
nomini,
imaginem,
nomen,
imago,
nomen,
imagine,
nomine,
imagines,
nomina,
imaginum,
nominum,
imaginibus,
nominibus,
imagines,
nomina,
imagines,
nomina,
imaginibus.
nominibus.
CONSONANT STEMS. 21
4. LIQUID STEMS IN r.
44. Form Nominative without s.
Stems fall into the following classes :
i. -ar,-(tris: salar, trout ; proper names like Caesar, Hamilcar;
the neuters baccar, a plant ; iubar, radiance ; nectar, nectar. -ar,
•arts: Lar, a deity. -ar, arts : Nar (ENN., VERG.), a river.
-ar, arris : far (n.) spelt.
2. -er, ~eris : acipSnser, a fish ; agger, mound ; anser, goose ; asser,
pole ; aster, a plant ; cancer, the disease ; career, prison; later, brick;
mulier (f .), woman ; passer, sparrow ; tuber (m. and f.), apple ; vesper,
evening (68, 10) ; vSmer, ploughshare (47 , 2). The neuters acer, maple;
cadaver, dead body ; cicer, pea ; laser, a plant ; laver, a plant ; papaver,
poppy ; piper, pepper ; slier, willow ; siser, skirret ; suber, cork ; tuber,
tumor ; fiber, teat ; [verber], thong. -er> -ris : four words, accipiter,
hawk ; frater, brother ; mater, mother ; pater, father. Also some proper
names, as DiSspiter, Falacer, and the names of the months, September,
October, November, December. Also, imber, shower, linter, skiff, fiter,
bag, venter, belly, which were probably vowel stems originally (see 45,
R. i). -er, -eris : a6r, air ; aether, ether. -er, -eris : v5r,
spring.
3. -or, -oris : arbor (f.), tree (stem originally in -os) ; some Greek
words in -tor, as rhetor, rhetorician ; slave names in -por, as Marcipor ;
the neuters : ador, spelt ; aequor, sea ; marmor, marble. -or, -oris :
very many abstract words, as amor, love; color, colour; clamor, outcry ;
soror, sister ; uxor, wife ; these may come from stems in 5s (see 47, 4) ;
also verbals in -tor, as victor.
4. -ur, -uris : augur, augur ; furfur, bran ; turtur, dove ; vultur,
vulture; lemures (pi.), ghosts, and a few proper names ; also the
neuters fulgur, lightning ; guttur, throat ; murmur, murmur ; sulfur,
sulphur. -ur, -uris ; fur, thief.
5. Four neuters, ebur, ivory ; femur, thigh ; iecur, liver ; robur, oak,
show Gen. in -oris ; two of these, femur, iecur, have also the irregular
forms feminis and iecineris, iecinoris, iocinoris. Iter, way, has G. itineris;
and supellex, furniture, has G. supellSctilis.
45. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
N. labor, toil (m.), labor es, pater, father (m.), patrSs,
G. laboris, laborum, patris, patrnm,
D. labor!, laboribus, patrl, patribus,
Ac. laborem, labores, patrem, patres,
V. labor, laborgs, pater, patrgs,
Ab. labore, laboribus. patre. patribus.
22 THIRD DECLENSION.
REMARKS. — i. Imber, shower, linter, skiff, uter, bag, venter, belly,
show the vowel nature of their steins by having Gen. PI. in -ium.
Imber has also sometimes Abl. Sing, in I. (See 37, 4. )
2. Bobur, strength, also forms a Nom. r5bus (47, 4), and v5mer, plough-
share, vomis (47, 2).
NOTE. — Arbor, and many stems in -or, were originally stems in -s ; the s became r
(47) between two vowels in the oblique cases, and then reacted upon the Nominative.
But many Nominatives in -os are still found in early Latin ; and some are still retained
in the classical times : arbos (regularly in VERG., frequently in LUCK., HOR., Ov.),
hones (regularly in VERG., commonly in Cic., LIVT), and others.
46. Rules of Gender. — i. Substantives in -er and -or are
masculine. 2. Substantives in -ar and -ur are neuter.
EXCEPTIONS. — Masculine are salar, trout, and proper names in -ar ; augur,
augur ; furfur, bran ; names of animals in -ur and a few proper names in -ur.
Feminine are arbor, tree ; mulier, woman ; soror, sister ; uzor, wife. Neuter
are acer, maple ; ador, spelt ; aequor, sea ; cadaver, dead body ; cicer, pea ;
iter, way ; laser, a plant ~ laver, a plant ; marmor, marble ; papaver, poppy ;
piper, pepper ; slier, willow ; siser, skirret ; suber, cork ; tuber, tumor ; fiber,
teat ; v6r, spring ; [verber], thong.
B.-Sibilant Stems.
47. The Nominative has no additional s, and changes in
masculines e to i, and in neuters e or o to u before s.
In the oblique cases, the s of the stem usually passes over,
between two vowels, into r (rhotacism).
There are the following varieties of stems :
1. -as, -aris : mas, male. -as, -dsis : vas (n.), vessel. -as,
-assis : as (m.), a copper (vowel long in Nom. by compensatory
lengthening), and some of its compounds (with change of vowel), as
bes, semis.
2. -es, -erist CerSs, Ceres. -is, -eris : cinis, ashes; cucumis,
cucumber (see 57, R. i), pulvis (occasionally pulvis), dust; vGmia, plough-
share (see 45, R. 2). -us, -eris : Venus, and occasionally plgnus,
pledge (see 4).
3. -Is, -iris : glls, dormouse.
4. -OS, -osis : old Latin ianitos, labos, clamos (see 45, N.). -OS,
-ossis : os (n.), bone. -6s, -or is : flos, flower; glos, sister-in-law;
lepos,charm; m5s(m.), custom; -6s (n.), mouth ; ros,dew. -us, -oris :
corpus, body ; decus, grace ; pignus, pledge, and twelve others ; on robus
(see 45, R. 2).
5. -us, -uris: Ligus, Ligurian. -us, -uris: tellus (f.), earth;
mus (m.), mouse; the neuters: crus, leg; ius, right; pus, pus; rus,
country; tus, incense.
6. aes, aeris, brass.
CONSONANT STEMS. 23
48. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
N. A. V. genus, kind (n.), genera, corpus, body (n.), corpora,
G. generis, generum, corporis, corporum,
D. generl, generibus, corporl, corporibus,
Ab. genere. generibus. corpore. corporibus.
REMARK. — As, a copper, and os, bone, form the Gen. PL in -ium, after
the usage of vowel stems (see 38, 2). So also mus, mouse.
49. Rule of Gender. — Masculine are substantives in -is
(-eris), and -6s, -oris: except 6s, mouth (G. oris), which is
nenter.
Neuter are substantives in -us (G. -eris, -oris), and in -us
(G. -uris) ; except tellus, earth (G. telluris), which is femi-
nine ; and the masculines, lepus, hare (G. leporis) ; mus,
mouse (G. muris).
C.— Mute Stems.
50. All masculines and feminines of mute stems have s in
the Nominative. Before s a P-mute is retained, a K-mute
combines with it to form x, a T-mute is dropped.
Most polysyllabic mute stems change their final vowel i
into e in the Nominative.
The stems show variations as follows : X
51. Stems in a P-mute.
1. -abSf -abis : trabs, beam ; Arabs. -aps, -apis : [daps], feast.
2. -ebs, ebis : plebs, commons.
3. -eps, -ipis : princeps, chief, and fourteen others. -ips,
-ipis : stips, dole.
4. -ops, -opis : [ops], power.
5. -eps, upis : auceps, fowler, and the old Latin manceps, contractor.
6. -rbs, -rbis : urbs, city.
7. -rps, -rpis : stirps, stock.
So. — N. princeps, chief (m.), PL. — prlncipgs,
G. principis, principum,
D. principl, prmcipibus.
Ac. prlncipem, prlncipgs,
V. princeps, prlncipgs,
Ab. principe. prlncipibus.
52. Stems in a K-mute.
i. -ax, -acis: fax, torch, and many Greek words in -ax, Atax,
proper name, -ax, -acis : fornax, furnace ; Umax, snail ; pax, peace ;
and Greek cordax, thorax.
24 THIED DECLENSION.
2. -ex, -ecis : faenisex, mower ; nex, murder ; [prex], prayer ;
[resex], stump. -ex, -eds : allex (also allEc), brine ; vervgx, wether.
-ex, -egis : grex, herd ; aquilex, water-inspector. -ex, -egis :
interrex ; lex, law ; rex, Icing.
3. 'ex, •ids : auspex, soothsayer, and about forty others. -ex,
-igis : remex, rower. -ix, Ids : cervix, neck, and about thirty
others ; verbals in -ix, as victrlx. -ix, -ids : appendix, appendix, and
ten others. -ix, -igis : strix, screech-owl ; also many foreign proper
names, as Dumnorix, which may, however, be forms in -ix, -igis.
4. -ox, -6ds : ce!5x, cutter ; v5x, voice. -ox, -ods : Cappadox,
Cappadocian. -ox, -ogis : Allobrox, Allobrogian.
5. -ux,-uds: crux, cross; dux, leader ; ma, nut. -ux,-uds:
lux, light ; ballux, gold-dust ; Pollux. -ux, -ugis : coniux (-uns),
spouse. 'Ux, -ugis : frux, fruit.
6. 'TX, -rds : arx, citadel ; merx, wares. -Ix, -Ids : faix,
sickle ; calx, heel, lime. -nx, -nds : lanx, dish ; compounds of -uux,
as quincunx, and a few names of animals ; phalanx has G. phalangis.
7. Unclassified : nix (G. nivis), snow ; b6s (G. bovis ; see 71), ox; [faux]
(G. faucis), throat ; faex (G. faecis), dregs.
So. — N. rex, king (m.). PL. — rggSs,
G. regis, rSgum,
D. r6gi, rggibus,
Ac. regem, r5g6s,
V. r6x, r8g6s,
Ab. rege, rBgibus.
53. Stems in a T-mute
1. -as, -atis : many feminine abstracts, as aetas, age ; some proper
names, as Maecenas. -as, -atis : anas, duck. -as, -adis : vas,
bail ; lampas, torch.
2. -es,-etis: indiges, patron deity ; interpres, interpreter; praepes,
bird; seges, crop; teges, mat. -es, -etis : abies, fir; aries, ram;
paries, wall. -es, -etis : quies, quiet ; requies, rest. -es, -edis :
p6s, foot, and its compounds. -es, -edis : heres, heir ; merces, hire.
3. -es, -itis : antistes, overseer ; caespes, sod, and some fifteen oth-
ers, -es, -idis : obses, hostage ; praeses, protector. -is, -itis :
lls, suit. -is, -idis : capis, bowl ; cassis, helmet, and nearly forty
others, mostly Greek.
4. -os, -of is : c5s, whetstone ; d6s, dowry ; nepos, grandson ; sacer-
dos, priest. -os, -ddis : cust5s, guard.
5. -us, 'Utis : glus, glue, and some abstracts : iuventus, youth ;
salus, safety ; senectus, old age ; servitus, servitude ; virtus, manliness.
-us, -udis : pecus, sheep. -us, -udis : incus, anvil ; palus,
marsh ; subscus, tenon.
CONSONANT STEMS. 25
6. -aes, -aedis : praes, surety. -aus, -audis : laus, praise ;
fraus, fraud.
7. -Is, -Itis : puls, porridge. -nsf -ntis : Infans, infant ; dens,
tooth ; fons, fountain ; m5ns, mountain ; frons, Z>row ; pens, bridge ; gens,
tribe; lens, lentil; mSns, mind; rudens, rope; torrens, torrent. -s,
-ntis : latinised Greek words like gigas, giant. -rs, -rtis : ars, art ;
cohors, cohort,- fors, chance ; Mars; mors, death ; sors, lot.
8. Unclassified : cor (G. cordis), heart ; nox (G. noctis), night ; caput
(G. capitis), Aeorf ; lac (G. lactis), milk.
So. — N. aetas, age, (f.). PL. — aetatSs, SG.— p6s, foot (m.). PL. — pedes,
G. aetatis, aetatum, pedis, pedum,
1). aetati, aetatibus, pedl, pedibus,
Ac. aetatem, aetates, pedem, pedes,
Y. aetas, aetates, pes, pedes,
Ab. aetate, aetatibus. pede, pedibus.
54. Many substantives of this class were originally vowel stems
(see 56), and show their origin by having the termination -ium in the
Gen. PI. and -I in the Abl. Singular. Some not originally vowel stems
do the same. (See 38, 2.)
Monosyllabic mute stems, with the characteristic preceded by a
consonant, have the Gen. PL in -ium : urbium, of cities ; arcium, of
citadels ; montium, of mountains ; partium, of parts ; noctium, of the
nights. But -um is also found in gentum (ATTIUS), partum (ENNius) ;
so always opum.
Monosyllabic mute stems, with characteristic preceded by a long
vowel or diphthong, vary : dot-ium, lit-ium, fauc-iuni, fraud-um (-ium),
laud-um (-ium). But praed-um, vScum.
Monosyllabic mute stems with characteristic preceded by a short
vowel have -um ; but fac-ium, nuc-um (-ium), niv-ium (-um).
The polysyllabic stems in -nt and -rt have more frequently -ium, as
clientium (-um), of clients ; cohortium (-um), of companies. So adulS-
scentium (-um), amantium (-um), Infantium (-um), parentum (-ium), serpen-
tium (-um), torrentium (-um) ; rudentum (-ium) ; but only quadrantum.
Of other polysyllabic stems feminine stems in -at have frequently
both -um and -ium, as aetatum and aetatium, civitatum and civitStium,
etc. ; the rest have usually -um : but artifex, (h)aruspex, extispex, iudex,
supplex, coniux, r6mex, and usually fornax have -ium. Forceps, manceps,
municeps, princeps have -um. Falus has usually paludium.
NOTES. — i. The accusative lentim from [16ns] is occasionally found, and partim
from pars, as an adverb.
2. Sporadic ablatives in -i occur as follows : animantl (Cic.), bidentl (LucB.),
tridentl (Sn,., VEBG.), capitl, consonant! (gram.), hgrSdl (inscr.), Iggl (inscr.),
lent! (TITIN., COL.), lucl (early), mentl (COL.), occipiti (PKBS., Aus.), pad
(VABBO), parti, rudentl (VITK.). sorti, torrentl (SEN.).
26 THIED DECLENSION.
55. Rule of Gender. — Mute stems, with Nominative in s,
are feminine.
1. Exceptions in a k-mute. ,
Masculines are substantives in -ex, -6x, -ix, and -rtnx ; except cortex,
bark, forfex, shears, frutex, shrub, imbrex, tile, latex, fluid, obex, bolt,
silex, flint, varix, varicose vein, which are sometimes masculine, some-
times feminine ; and faex, dregs, forpex, tongs, iSx, law, nex, slaughter,
vlbex, weal, and forms of [prex], prayer, which are feminine. Calx,
heel, and calx, chalk, are sometimes masculine, sometimes feminine.
2. Exceptions in a t-mute.
Masculine are substantives in -es, -itis, except merges (f.), sheaf;
also pes, foot, and its compounds ; paries, wall ; lapis, stone.
Masculines in -ns are : dens, tooth, and its compounds ; f5ns, spring ;
m5ns, mountain ; pons, bridge, ; rudfins, rope ; torrens, torrent ; also some
substantivised adjectives and participles.
Neuters are only : cor, heart, lac, milk, and caput, head.
II.-VOWEL STEMS.
1 .—Vowel Stems in I.
56. Masculines and feminines form their Nominative in s.
Some feminines change, in the Nominative, the stem-
vowel i into e.
Neuters change, in the Nominative, the stem-vowel i into
e. This e is generally dropped by polysyllabic neuters after
1 and r.
Stems in i have Genitive Plural in -ium.
Neuter stems in i have the Ablative Singular in i, and
Nominative Plural in -ia.
The varieties of stems are :
1. -is, -is : nearly one hundred substantives, like clvis, citizen.
2. -es, -is : thirty-five, like vulpSs, fox. Some of these have also
variant nominatives in -is in good usage.
3. -e, -is : some twenty neuters, as mare, sea.
4. — , -is : twenty-four neuters, which form Nominative by dropping
the stem characteristic and shortening the preceding vowel : animal,
-alls, animal ; calcar (G-. calcaris), spur.
5. For substantives in -er, -ris, see 44, 2. Irregular is senex,
(G. senis ; see 57, R. 3), old man.
VOWEL STEMS.
So.— N. collis, hill, turris, tower. vulp6s,/o:c. mare, sea. animal, living being.
G. collis, turris, vulpis, raaris, animalis,
D. colll,
Ac. collem,
V. collis,
Ab. colle,
turrl,
turrim(em),
turris,
turrl(e),
vulpl,
vulpem,
vulpes,
vulpe,
marl,
mare,
mare,
marl,
animal!,
animal,
animal,
animal!,
PL— N. collSs, turrSs,
G. collium, turri-um,
D. collibus, turri-bus,
Ac. collisCes), turris(es),
V. colles, turrSs,
Ab. collibus. turri-bus.
vulpes, maria, animalia,
vulpium, marum, animalium,
vulpibus, maribus, animalibus,
vulpls(e"s), maria, animalia,
vulpes, maria, animalia,
vulpibus. maribus. animalibus.
57. REMARKS. — i. The proper ending of the Ace. Sing, -im, is re-
tained always in amussis, buris, cucumis (see 47, 2), futis, mephitis,
ravis, rumis, sitis, tussis, vis ; and in names of towns and rivers in -is,
as Neapolis, Tiberis ; usually in febris, puppis, pelvis, restis, securis, turris ;
occasionally in bipennis, clavis, cratis, cutis, len(ti)s (see 54, N. i), messis,
navis, neptis, praesaepis, sementis, strigilis.
2. The Abl. in -I is found in substantives that regularly have -im
in Ace. (except perhaps restis) : also not unfrequently in amnis, avis,
bipennis, canalis, clvis, classis, finis (in formulas), fustis, Ignis (in phrases),
orbis, sementis, strigilis, uuguis ; occasionally in anguis, bilis, clavis,
collis, convallis, corbis, messis, neptis ; regularly in neuters in e, al, and ar,
except in rete, and in the towns Caere, Praeneste.
NOTE.— So also the adjectives of this class, when used as substantives by ellipsis :
annSlis (sc. liber, book), chronicle ; natalis (sc. die's, day), birthday; Aprllis (sc.
mSnsis, month), and all the other months of the Third Declension : Abl., annall,
natall, Aprill, SeptembrI, etc. But iuvenis, young man; and aedllis, aedile,
have Abl., iuvene, aedile ; adjectives used as proper nouns have generally Abl. in
•e, as, luvenalis, luvenale.
3. In the Gen. PL, instead of the ending -ium, -urn is found always
in canis, dog, iuvenis, young man, panis, bread, senex, old, Strugs, heap,
volucris, bird; usually in apis, bee, sgdes, seat, vat6s, bard ; frequently
in mgnsis, month. On imber, etc., see 45, R. i. Post-classical and rare
are ambagum, caedum, cladum, veprum, and a few others ; marum (the
only form found) occurs once.
4. In the Nom. PL -els and -Is are found in early Latin. So occa-
sionally in consonant stems (see 38, i), but in classical times such usage
is doubtful.
5. The proper ending of the Aec. PL, -Is (archaic, -els), is found fre-
quently in the classical period along with the later termination -Ss, which
supplants -Is wholly in the early empire. On the other hand, -Is for -68
in consonant stems is confined to a few doubtful cases in early Latin.
28
THIRD DECLENSION.
58. Rule of Gender. — i. Vowel stems, with Nominative
in -6s are feminine ; those with Nominative in -is are partly
masculine, partly feminine.
Masculine are: anmis, river (f., early); ante's (pl.)> rows; axis, axle; buris, plough-
tail; cassSs (pi.), toils; caulis, stalk; collis, hill; crlnis, hair; gnsis, glaive;
fascis, fagot ; follis, bellows ; funis, rope (f ., LUCE.) ; fustis, cudgel ; ignis, fire ;
mane's (pi.), Manes ; m6nsis, month ; mugil(is), mullet ; orbis, circle ; panis, bread ;
postis, door-post ; torr is,. fire-brand ; unguis, nail ; vectis, lever ; vermis, worm.
Common are : c&Uis, footpath ,• canalis, canal ; clunis, haunch ; cor bis, basket ;
finis, end ; rStis, net (also re"te, n.) ; sentis (usually pi.), bramble ; scrobis, ditch ;
torquis (es), necklace ; t5l6s (pl.)i goitre ; veprSs (pi-), bramble.
REMARK. — Of the names of animals in -is, some are masculine ; tigris,
tiger (fern, in poetry) ; canis, dog (also fern.) ; piscis, fish ; others fem-
inine : apis, tee ; avis, bird ; ovis, sheep ; fglis, cat (usually feles).
2. Vowel stems, with Nominative in -e, -al, -ar, are neuter.
2. Vowel Stems in u.
59. Of stems in u, the monosyllabic stems, two in num-
ber, belong to the Third Declension.
So. — N. grus, crane (f.)
(jr. gmis
D. grul
Ac. gruem
V. grus
Ab. grue
PL. — grues
gruum
gruibus
grues
grues
gruibos.
Sfis, swine (commonly f.), usually subus, in Dat. and Abl. Plural.
TABLE OF NOMINATIVE AND GENITIVE ENDINGS op THE THIRD DECLENSION.
The * before the ending denotes that it occurs only in the one word cited.
60.
A. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A LIQUID.
NOM.
GEN.
NOM. GEN.
-al
-ali-s
animal, animal.
-ar *-arr-is
far,
-al-is
Hannibal, proper name.
-er -er-is
anser,
-al
*-al-is
sal, salt.
-r-is
pater,
-el
-ell-is
mel, honey.
*-iner-is
iter,
-il
-il-is
pugil, boxer.
-Br *-6r-is
v6r,
-U-is
Tanaquil, proper name.
•or -6r-is
color,
-SI
*-ol-is
sol, the sun.
-or-is
aequor,
-ul
-ul-is
cSnsul, consul.
*-ord-is
cor,
-6n
-Sn-is
rSngs (pi.), kidneys.
•ur -ur-is
fulgur,
•en
-in-is
nomen, name.
-or-is
roour,
-ar
-ari-s
calcar, spur.
-ur -ur-is
far,
-ari-s
nectar, nectar.
spelt.
goose.
father.
journey.
spring.
colour.
expanse.
heart.
lightning.
oak.
thief.
VOWEL STEMS.
B. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH B, OK
x (cs, gs).
29
NOM. GEN.
NOM. GEN.
-as *-as-is
vas,
dish.
-Is
*-lt-is
puls,
porridge.
*-ar-is
mas,
male.
•m(p)s
*-m-is
hiems,
winter.
* ass-is
as,
a copper.
-ns
-nd-is
frons,
leafy branch.
-fit-is
aetas.
age.
-nt-is
frons,
forehead.
-as *-ad-is
vas,
surety.
-rs
-rd-is
coucors,
concordant.
*-at-is
anas.
duck.
-rt-is
pars,
part.
-aes*-aed-is
praes,
surety.
-bs
-b-is
urbs,
city.
*aer-is
aes,
brass.
-ps
-p-is
stirps,
stalk.
•aus -aucl-is
fraus,
cheatery.
-eps
-ip-is
princeps,
chief.
-es -is
nubSs,
cloud.
*-up-is
auceps,
fowler.
-ed-is
p6s,
foot.
-ax
-ac-is
pax,
peace.
*-er-is
Cere's,
Ceres.
ax
*-ac-is
fax,
torch.
•et-is
abiSs,
fir.
-aex
-aec-is
faex,
dregs.
-St-is
quies,
rest.
-aux
-auc-is
[faux,]
throat.
es -et-is
seges,
crop.
-ex
-ec-is
nex,
death.
-id-is
obses,
hostage.
-ic-is
iudex,
judge.
-it-is
miles,
soldier.
-eg-is
grex,
Jlock.
-is -is
amnis,
river.
*-ig-is
rgmex,
rower.
-id-is
lapis,
stone.
-ex
*-Sc-is
max,
pickle.
-in-is
sanguis,
blood.
*-ic-is
vlbgx(Ix), weal:
-er-is
cinis,
ashes.
-gg-is
rSx,
king.
-Is *-It-is
Us,
suit at law.
-Ix
-Ic-is
cervix,
neck.
*-Ir-is
glls,
dormouse.
-ix
-ic-is
calix,
cup.
-5s *-od-is
cfistos,
keeper.
*-ig-is
strix,
screech-owl.
•6r-is
flos,
flower.
*-iv-is
nix,
mow.
-5t-is
COS,
whetstone.
-«x
-de-is
v6x,
•voice.
*-ov-is
blto,
ox.
-ox
*-oc-is
praecox,
early-ripe.
-os *oss-is
OS,
bone.
*-og-is
Allobrox,
Allobrogian.
•us *-ud-is
pecus,
cattle, sheep.
*-oct-is
nox,
night.
*-ur-is
Ligus,
a Ligurian.
-ux
-c-is
crux,
cross.
-or-is.
corpus,
body.
-ug-is
coniux,
spouse.
-er-is
scelus,
crime.
-fix
-uc-is
lux,
light.
•us -u-is
sus,
swine*
-ug-is
[frux,]
fruit.
-M-is
incus,
anvil.
-Ix
-Ic-is
falx,
sickle.
-ur-is
ius,
right.
-nx
-nc-is
lanx,
dish.
.fit-is
salus,
weal.
-rx
-re-is
arx,
citadel.
C. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A MUTE.
-ut *-it-is caput, head.
-ac *-act-is lac, milk.
-Sc *-6c-is allSc, pickle (68, 12).
D. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A VOWEL.
-e
-O
•8
-i-s
-on-is
-on-Is
-in-is
*-n-is
mare, sea.
Saxo, Saxon.
pavS, peacock.
homo, man.
card", flesh.
JO FOURTH DECLENSION.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
61. The Fourth Declension embraces only dissyllabic and
polysyllabic stems in u.
The endings are those of the Third Declension.
In the Genitive and Ablative Singular, and in the Nomi-
native, Accusative, and Vocative Plural (sometimes, too, in
the Dative Singular), the u of the stem absorbs the vowel of
the ending, and becomes long. In the Dative and Ablative
Plural it is weakened to i before the ending -bus.
The Accusative Singular, as always in vowel stems, has
the ending -m, without a connecting vowel (compare the
Accusative in -i-m of the stems in i), hence -u-m.
MASCULIKE. NEUTER.
SG.— N. fructus, fruit. PL.— fructus, SG.— cornu, horn. PL.— cornua,
cornuum,
cornibus,
cornua,
cornua,
cornibus.
REMARKS. — i. Dot. Abl. The original form -u-bus is retained
always in acus, arcus, quercus, tribus, and in classical times in partus.
But artus, genu, lacus, portus, specus, tonitru, veru, have both forms.
2. Domus, house, is declined : G. domu-os (archaic), domu-is and domi
(early), domu-us (late), domus. D. domo (early), domuL Ac. domum.
V. domus. Ab. dom-ti (sporadic), domo. Loc. domi. PI. N. domus.
G. domorum (LucR. always, VERG., FLOR.), domuum (late). D. Ab.
domibus. Ac. domos, domus. Classical forms are those in black-faced
type. A classical variant for domi (Loc.) is domui.
NOTES. — 1. Singular: Genitive. In early inscriptions we find the ending -os, as
senatuOS ; and in early authors not nnf requently -is, along with the contraction -us
(•uis), which becomes the regular form in classical times. In inscriptions under the
empire -us is occasionally found, as exercituus. The termination -I, after the analogy
of the Second Declension, is common in early Latin, and is still retained in some
words even into the classical period ; as senatl (Cic., SALL., LIVT), tumultl (SALL.).
2. Dative. In the early tune -uel is found very rarely for -ul. Also u, as senatu,
fructu, which became the only form for neuters. In classical tunes -u in masc. and
fern, is poetical only (CAESAR uses, however, casu, exercitu, magistratu, senatu,
quaestu), but extends to prose in the Augustan age and later.
3. Plural : Norn., Ace., Voc. In imperial inscriptions -uus occurs.
4. Genitive. The poets frequently contract -uum into -um for metrical reasons,
and this usage was sometimes extended to prose (not by CICERO) in common words ; aa
passum for passuum.
5. Colus, distaff, belongs properly to the Second Declension, but has variants : Q.
COlus, Ab. colu, PL, N., Ac., colus, from the Fourth.
G. fructus,
fructuum,
cornus,
D. fructul (fructu),
fructibus,
cornu,
Ac. fructum,
fructus,
cornu,
V. fructus,
fructus,
cornu,
Ab. fructu.
fructibus.
cornu.
FIFTH DECLENSION. 3!
62. Rule of Gender. — Substantives in -us are masculine ;
those in -ti are neuter.
EXCEPTIONS. — Feminines are acus, needle (usually), domus, house,
Idus (pi.), the Ides, manus, hand, penus, victuals (also m.), porticus,
piazza, qulnquatrus (pi.), festival of Minerva, tribus, tribe. Early and
late Latin show some further variations.
FIFTH DECLENSION.
63. The stem ends in -e ; Nominative in s.
In the Genitive and Dative Singular -e has been shortened
after a consonant.
In the Accusative Singular we find always e.
The ending in the Genitive Singular is that of the Second
Declension, -I ; the other endings are those of the Third.
MASCULINE. FEMININE.
SG. — N. dies, day. PL. — digs, SG. — rgs, thing. PL. — rfisr
G. diet, dierum, rei, rSrom,
D. diei, diebus, rei, rebus,
Ac. diem, digs, rem, res,
V. diSs, digs, rgs, rgs,
Ab. dig. diebus. re. rebus.
REMARKS. — i. Plural: Gen., Dat., All. Common in but two substan-
tives, digs, rgs. Late Latin shows also specigbus, and very rarely spebus
and aciebus.
2. Many words of the Fifth Declension have a parallel form, which
follows the First Declension, as mollitigs, softness, and mollitia. Where
this is the case, forms of the Fifth Declension are usually found only
in the Nom., Ace., and Abl. Singular.
NOTES.— 1. Singular : Genitive. The older ending -g-s is found sporadically in
early Latin, but usually the ending -g-I, which became later -8-1 after consonants,
though early poets show numerous examples of rgl, spgi, fidel. gl was occasionally
scanned as one syllable, whence arose the contraction g, which is retained not unfre-
quently in the classical period ; so acig (CAES., SALL.), dig (Pi-, CAES., SALL., LIVY,
later), fidg (Pi., HOB., Ov., late Prose), and other less certain cases; Joccursvery rarely,
principally in early Latin (but dil, VEKG., pernicil, Cic.). Plebes, in combination
with tribunus, aedllis, scitum, often shows a Gen. plgbl (plgbei).
2. Dative. The contraction -g is found, but less often than in the Gen. ; awe
(SALL.) ; dig, facig (early Latin) ; fidg (early Latin, CAES., SAXL., LIVY), pernicig
(LIVY), and a few other forms. The Dat. in -I is found very rarely in early Latin.
64. Rule of Gender. — Substantives of the Fifth Declension
are feminine except dies (which in the Sing, is common,
and in the PI. masculine), and raerldies (m.), midday.
DECLENSION OF GREEK SUBSTANTIVES.
Declension of Greek Substantives.
65. Greek substantives, especially proper names, are com-
monly Latinised, and declined regularly according to their
stem-characteristic. Many substantives, however, either
retain their Greek form exclusively, or have the Greek and
Latin forms side by side. These variations occur principally
in the Singular, in the Plural the declension is usually regular.
N.
G.
D.
Ac.
V.
Ab.
N.
G.
D.
Ac.
V.
Ab.
Singular Forms of Greek Substantives.
First Declension.
AnchisBs,
Anchisae,
Anchlsae,
Anchisen, am,
Anchlse, a, a,
Anchisa.
Androgeos, as,
Androgel,
Androgeo,
Androgeon, o, ona
Androgeos,
Androgeo.
Atlas,
Atlantis,
Atlanti,
Atlanta,
Atla,
Atlante.
hSros, hero,
herois,
heroi,
heroa, em,
heros,
heroe.
P5nelop6,
Leonidas,
G. Penelopes,
Leonidae,
D. Penelopae,
Leonidae,
Ac. Penelopen,
LeSnidam, an,
V. Penelope,
Leonida,
Ab. Penelopa.
Leonida.
Second Declension.
Delos, as, Ilion, am,
Panthos,
Deli, Ilil,
Fanthi,
DS15, Ilio,
Pantho,
Delon, am, Ilion, am,
Panthun,
Dele, Ilion, am,
Panthu,
Delo. £115.
Paatho.
Third
Declension.
Solon, Solo, a6r, air.
Xenophon,
Solonis, aeris,
Xenophontis,
SolSnl, aeri,
Xenophonti,
Solona, em, aera, em,
Xenophonta, em,
Solon, aer,
Xenophon,
Solone. aere.
Xenophonte.
N. Thaies,
Paris,
G. Thal-etis, -is,
Paridis, os,
D. Thal-etl, -I,
Paridi, i,
Ac. Thai-eta, -en, -em,
Par-ida, -im, -in,
V. Thale,
Pari, Paris,
Ab. Thale.
Paride.
Mixed Declensions.
N.
G.
D.
Ac.
V.
Ab.
n. m.
OrpheTis,
Orphel, el,
Orpheo,
Orpheum, ea,
Orphea,
OrpheS.
n. m.
Athos,
Atho, onis,
Atho,
Atho, on, onem,
Athos,
Athene.
n. m.
Oedipus,
Oedip-odis, -I,
Oedipodi,
Oedip-am, -ode
Oedipe,
Oedip-ode, -6.
IKREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. 33
n. m.
n. m.
m. iv.
N.
Achilles, ens,
Socrates,
Dido,
G.
Achillis, el, I, eos,
Socratis, I,
Diclus, onis,
D.
Achilli,
Socratf,
Dido, onl,
Ac.
Achillem, ea, en,
Socraten, em,
Dido, onem,
V.
Achilles, e, eu, e,
Socrate, es,
Dido,
Ab.
Achille, e, 1.
Socrate.
Dido, one.
REMARKS. — i. In the Gen. PL -5n and -eon are found in the titles of
books ; as, Georgicon, Metamorphoseon.
2. Many Greek names, of the Third Declension in Latin, pass over
into the First Declension in the Plural ; as, Thucydidas, Hyperldae, and
many names in -cratSs ; as SScratSs ; PI., Socratae (also SOcrates).
3. In transferring Greek words into Latin, the Accusative Singular
was sometimes taken as the stem :
So KpciTTJp, Ace. Kparfjpa, (punch) bowl.
crater, cratSris (masc.), and crater a (crgterra) cratSrae (fern.).
2a\aji,Cs, Ace. SaXajuva, Salamis.
Salamls, Salaminis, and Salamina, ae.
66. NOTES.— 1. Singular: Genitive. The Greek termination oeo (oio) appears
rarely in early Latin, but d (ou) is more frequent, especially in geographical names, etc.
The termination -OS (°«) is rare except in feminine patronymics in -is, -as, (G. -idos,
-ados).
2. Dative. The ending -I is very rare ; and rarer still is the Dat. in -5 from femi-
nines in -5, and Dat. in -y from Nominatives in -ys.
3. Accusative. -a. is the most common termination in the Third Declension, and is
found regularly in some words otherwise Latinised ; as aera, aethera. Stems in -5
usually have -5, very rarely -on.
4. Plural. In the Second Declension oe is found occasionally in the Nom., in early
Latin ; as, adelphoe. The Third Declension shows frequently 6s in the Nom. and as
in the Accusative ; also occasionally 6 in the Nom. and Ace. of neuters, and -si (but
only in the poets) in the Dative.
5. For other peculiarities, not observable in the paradigms, the dictionaries should
be consulted. Sometimes the forms are merely transliterations of Greek cases.
IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES.
1. Redundant Substantives. (Abundantia.)
67. A. Heterogeneous Substantives, or those whose gender varies :
i. The variation occurs in several cases in either number or in both.
abrotonum,
-us,
a plant (rare),
clipeus,
-um,
shield,
aevom (urn),
-us,
age,
collum,
-us,
neck,
baculum,
-us,
staff,
costum,
-us,
a plant (rare),
baltens,
-um,
girdle,
forum,
-us,
market,
buxus,
-um,
box-wood (rare),
gladius,
-um,
sword,
[ealamister],
-um,
curling-iron (rare),
intibus,
-um,
succory (rare),
caseus,
-um,
cheese,
iugulum,
-us,
collar-bone,
cavom (um),
-us,
cavity,
narduni,
-us,
nard (rare),
cingulum,
-us,
belt,
nasus,
-um,
nose,
3
34 IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES.
palatum, -us, palate, thesaurus, -um, treasure,
pileus, -um, cap, uterus, -um, u-omb,
sagum, -us, cloak, vallus, -um, palisade,
tergum, -us, back, and many others.
2. The gender varies in Singular and Plural, a. The Plural has
-a sometimes, while the Singular ends in -us (or -er) : clivus, hill, iocus,
jest, locus (loca, localities ; loci, usually passages in books, topics), and
many others, especially names of places.
b. The Plural has -I, while the Singular ends in -um : filum, thread,
£r6num, bit, rastrum, hoe, and many others.
68. B. Heteroclites, or substantives which show different stems with
the same Nominative ; Metaplasts, or those which have certain forms
from another than the Nominative stem.
1. 1st, 2d. esseda, -um, chariot, margarita, -um, pearl,
ostrea, -um, oyster,
2. 1st, 5th. duritia, -6s, hardness, materia, -68, matter,
and many others. See 63, R. 2.
3. 2d, 1st. mendum, -a, fault, sertum, -a, wreath.
The following form their Plural according to the First Declension only : balneum,
bath, delirium, pleasure, epulum, banquet, fulmentum, prop.
4. 2d, 3d. sequester, trustee, Mulciber, Vulcan.
5- 2d, 4th. Many names of trees of the Second Declension have certain cases
according to the Fourth ; never, however, the Gen. and Dat. PI., and very rarely the
Dat. Sing. ; as cornus, cupressus, fagus, ficus, laurus, myrtus, plnus, and a
few others.
Also angiportus, alley, colus, distaff, domus, house, and a large number of sub-
stantives of the Fourth Declension which have one or two cases of the Second ; so
arcus has G. arcl; conatus (-um), iussus (-tun), vultus have Norn. PI. in a;
senatus has Gen. Sing, senatl. See 61, KB, NN.
Finally, some substantives of the Second Declension form individual cases accord-
ing to the Fourth : fasti (Ac. pi. fastus), fretum (N. fretus, Ab. fretu), lectus (G.
lecttis), tributum (N. tributus), and others.
6. 2d, 5th. diluvium, -Ss, flood.
7. 3d. 2d. Vas, vessel, and vasum ; palumbes, pigeon, and palumbus ; [iuger],
acre, and iugerum ; all Greek nouns in -a (G. atis), as po§ma, poem (G. poSmatis),
but PL Gen. poSmatorum, Dat. Abl. poSmatis.
8. 3d, 5th. Fames, hunger, tabes, corruption, have Abl. fame, tab6 ; requi6s,
quiet (G. -6tis) has Ace. requiem, Abl. requi6 ; satias (G. atis) is early and late for
satietas, sufficiency, and a form saties is cited from late authors ; plgbs (G. plgbis),
commons, and pl6b6s (G. plebei).
9- 4th, 3d. Specus, cave, has occasionally forms of the Third Declension.
10. 2d, 3d, 1st. Vesper, evening, has Ace. vesperum ; Dat. Abl. vesperS ; PI.
Nom. vespera of the Second Declension ; Ace. vesperam ; Abl. vesperaof the First ;
Gen. vesperis ; Abl. vespere ; Loc. vespere, vesper! of the Third.
11. 4th, 2d, 3d. Penus,/ocKZ, (G. Us). Forms of the Second Declension are rare ;
of the Third early and late.
12. Variations in the same Declension : femur (G. femoris, feminis, etc.) ; iecur
(G. iecoris. iecinoris, etc.) ; pecus, early, also pecu (G. peooris, pecudis, etc.).
Also allSc and Sll6x, baccar and baccaris, cassis and cassida, lac and lacte
(early), panis and pane (early), re"te and r6tis, satias and satietas.
IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES.
35
II. Defective Substantives.
I. SUBSTANTIVES DEFECTIVE IN NUMBER.
69. A. Substantives used in Singular only : Singularia tantum.
Most abstract substantives, and names of materials ; such as
iustitia, justice, aurum, gold.
B. Substantives used in Plural only : Pluralia tantum.
altaria, ium,
altar (sing. late). Insidiae,
ambuscade.
ambages,
round about. lactes,
intestines.
angustiae,
straits. lainenta,
lamentations.
antae,
door-posts. lautomiae,
stone-quarries.
antes,
rows (of vines), llberl,
children.
arma, drum,
arms. manes,
shades of the dead.
armamenta, orum
, tackle. manubiae,
spoils.
bellaria, orum,
dessert. minae,
threats.
blgae, quadrigae,
two-horse,four-horse moenia, ium,
town-wall.
chariot (sing. late), nundinae (-num),
market.
cancelll,
lattice. nuptiae,
wedding.
casses,
toils (snare). palpebrae,
eyelids (sing. late).
caulae,
opening. parentalia,
festival for dead rela-
cervices,
neck (sing, early, late,
tions.
and poet.). parietinae,
ruins.
cibaria,
victuals. penates,
the Penates.
claustrum,
lock (sing. late). phalerae,
trappings.
clltellae,
pack-saddle. praecordia, orum,
diaphragm.
codicilli,
a short note. praestrlgiae,
jugglers'1 tricks.
compedes,
fetters. preces, -um,
prayer.
crepundia, orum,
rattle. prlmitiae,
first-fruits.
cunae,
cradle. quisquiliae,
rubbish.
divitiae,
riches. reliquiae,
remains.
dumeta, orum,
thorn-bush. r8n6s,
kidneys.
epulae (epulum),
banquet. sallnae,
salt-pits.
excubiae,
watching. scalae,
stairway.
exsequiae,
funeral procession, sentes,
brambles.
exta, orum,
the internal organs, spolia, orum,
spoils (sing, late, and
exuviae,
equipments.
poet.).
facetiae,
witticism (sing, ear- sponsalia, ium,
betrothal.
ly and late). suppetiae,
succor (early and late).
fasti (fastus),
calendar. talaria, ium,
winged sandals.
fauces,
gullet. tenebrae,
darkness.
feriae,
holidays. thermae,
warm baths.
flabra,
breezes. tonsillae,
tonsils.
fores,
door (sing, early, tormina,
colic.
late and poet.). trlcae,
tricks.
fraga, orum,
strawberries. utensilia, ium,
necessaries.
grates,
thanks. valvae,
folding-doors.
hlberna,
winter quarters. verbera, um,
scourging (sing. poet.
Idus, Ealendae,
Ides, Calends,
and late).
Nonae,
Nones. vindiciae,
a legal claim.
incunabula,
swaddling-clothes, virgulta, orum,
shrubbery.
indutiae,
truce. viscera,
entrails (sing, poet
inferiae,
sacrijtcesfor the dead.
and late).
30 IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES.
NOTES.— 1. Four of these have the Abl. Sing, in -e: ambage, compede, fauce,
prece.
2. Names of persons or towns, and collectives and the like, may be either singu-
iSria tantum, as luppiter ; Roma ; capillus, hair ; or pluralia tantum, as
maiorSs, ancestors ; Quirites ; liberl, children ; pulmonSs, lungs. Many of these
are not included in the above list, which is meant to contain only the principal forms.
Akin to pluralia tantum are :
C. Substantives used in Plural with a special sense : Heterologa.
aetlgs, is,
temple (better aedis),
aedSs,
house, palace.
aqua,
water,
aquae,
mineral springs.
auxilium,
help,
auxilia,
auxiliaries, reinforcements.
career,
prison,
carcerSs,
barriers.
castrum,
fort,
castra,
camp.
cera,
wax,
cSrae,
waxen tablets.
comitium,
place of assemblage,
comitia,
assemblage for voting.
copia,
abundance,
cSpiae,
forces, troops.
delirium,
pleasure,
deliciae,
pet.
facultas,
capability.
facultates,
goods.
finis,
end, limit,
fines,
territory, borders.
fortuna,
fortune,
fortunae,
possessions.
habena,
strap,
habgnae,
reins.
impedimentum,
hindrance,
impedimenta, baggage.
littera,
letter (of the alphabet), Htterae,
epistle, literature.
lUdus,
game, school,
ludl,
public games.
opera,
work,
operae,
workmen.
pars,
part,
partgs,
also role.
rostrum,
beak,
rostra,
the tribunal at Rome.
sors,
lot,
sortes,
also oracle.
tabula,
board, tablet,
tabulae,
also accounts.
vigilia,
a night-watch,
vigiliae,
pickets.
2. SUBSTANTIVES DEFECTIVE IN CASE.
70. A. Substantives occurring in only one case : Gen. dicis,/onw ,• Ace. Infitias
(Ire), (to) lie ; pessum (Ire), (to) perish ; Abl. pondo, in weight ; sponte, of free will ;
tSb5, corruption (Gen. late) ; and many verbals in fi, as accltu, admonitu, arcessitu,
coactu, compressu, concessu, domitu, inductu, interpositu, invltatu, iussu
(other forms late), iniussu, mandatu, missu, natu, permissu, promptu, rogatu.
A few others occur occasionally in ante-classical and post-classical Latin.
B. Substantives with only two cases : fas, nefas, Sing. N. Ac. ; Instar, Sing. N. Ac. ;
interneciO, Sing. Ac. Ab. ; naucum, Sing. G. Ac. ; secus, Sing. N. Ac. ; spinter, Sing.
N. Ac.; suppetiae, Plur. N. Ac., and a few others. Some verbals in -ushavein Plural
only Nom. and Ace., as impetus, monitus. Greek neuters in -OS have only Nom. and
Ace. Singular.
C. Substantives with three cases : faex, Sing. N., D., Plur. Ab. ; virus, slime ; Sing.
N., G., Ab.
D. Defective substantives with more than three cases are numerous, but in the
classical period the most important are : calx, lime, COS, [daps] , dica, [ dicio ! , fi amen,
blast, forum, [frQz], [indSgo], later, lux, [of6\,Qa,nmith, pax, rSmex, vis, [vix],
and most substantives of the Fifth Declension. The Nominatives in brackets do not
occur, but only oblique cases.
E. Nem5, nobody, substitutes for Gen. and Abl. nulllus hominis, and null?
liomine. I" the Dat. and Ace. it is normal ; nSmini, nSminem.
ADJECTIVES.
37
71.
III. Peculiarities.
as, assis (m.), a copper.
auceps, aucupis, fowler.
bos (for bovs), bovis (c.), ox, cow.
G. Pi. bourn.
D. Ab. bubus, bobus.
caput, capitis (n.), head.
anceps, ancipitis, two-headed.
praeceps, -cipitis, headlong.
caro, carnis (f.),Jlesh.
PL G. carnium.
Cere's, Cereris, Ceres.
far, farris (n.) spelt.
fel, fellis (n.), gall.
femur, femoris (n.), thigh.
feminis.
iter, itineris (n.), way, route.
iecur, iecoris (n.), liver.
iecinoris, iecineris, iocineris.
luppiter, lovis.
mel, mellis (n.), honey.
nix, nivis (f .), snow.
OS, ossis (n.), bone (48 B.).
8s, 6ris (n.), mouth.
pollis, jwllinis (m.), flour.
sanguis, sanguinis (m.), Wood.
senex, senis, oW wiaw.
supellex, supellectilis (f .), furniture.
Venus, Veneris, Venus.
ADJECTIVES.
72. The adjective adds a quality to the substantive. Ad-
jectives have the same declension as substantives, and accord-
ing to the stem-characteristic are of the First and Second, or
Third Declension.
Adjectives of the First and Second Declension.
73. Stems in -o for masculine and neuter, -a for feminine ;
nominative in -us, -a, -urn ; (er), -a, -um. The same variations
in termination occur as in the substantives ; except that
adjectives in -ius form Singular Genitive and Vocative regu-
larly. See 33, E. i and 2.
Bonus, bona, bonum, good.
M. p. N. M. F. N.
SG.— N. bonus, bona, bonum. PL.— bonl, bonae, bona.
6. bonl, bonae, boni. bonorum, bonarum, bonorum.
D. bono, bonae, bond. bonis, bonis, bonls.
Ac. bonum, bonam, bonum. bonos, bonas, bona.
V. bone, bona, bonum. boni, bonae, bona.
Ab. bono, bona, bono. bonis, bonis, bonis.
Miser, misera, miserum, wretched.
SG.— N. miser, misera, miserum. PL.— miseri, miserae, misera.
6. miseri, miserae, miseri. miserorura, miserarum, miseroriun,
D. misero, miserae, misero. miserls, miserls, miserls.
Ac. miserum, miseram, miserum. miseros, miseras, misera.
V. miser, misera, miserum. miseri, miserae, misera.
Ab. miserS, misera, misero. miserls, miserls, miserls.
38 ADJECTIVES.
Piger, pigra, pigrom, slow.
So.— N. piger, pigra, pigrum. PL.— pigri, pigrae, pigra.
G. pigri, pigrae, pigri. pigrorum, pigrarum, pigrorum.
D. pigrS, pigrae, pigr5. pigris, pigrls, pigris.
Ac. pigrum, pigram, pigrum. pigros, pigras, pigra.
V. piger, pigra, pigrum. pigri, pigrae, pigra.
Ab.pigro, pigjra, pigrS. pigris, pigris, pigris.
REMARK. — For irregularities in the declension of ambo, both, duo,
two, see 95 ; for meus, my, see 100, R. i.
74. Stems in -ro follow the same principle in the forma-
tion of the Nominative masculine as the substantives, except
that -us is retained in ferus, wild, properus, quick, praepro-
perus, praeposterus, absurd, inferus, lower (infer is early),
superus, upper (super is early), and a few others in late Latin ;
also when -ro is preceded by a long vowel ; as, austerus,
harsh, maturus, early, procerus, tall, purus, pure, severus,
serious, sincerus, sincere, serus, late, verus, true.
REMARKS. — i. Dextera, dexterum, etc., right, are found side by side
with dextra, dextrum, etc., throughout the language (see 8, 2). CAESAR
uses only the shorter form.
2. A few adjectives of this class lack the Nom. Sing, wholly or in
part ; so there is no cSterus or posterns in the classical period.
75. NOTES ON THE CASES. — 1. The Gen. Sing, in -I from adjectives In -ius occurs
occasionally in inscriptions and in late authors. The Gen. Sing. fern, in early Latin
had sometimes 51, arid in inscriptions occasionally -aes and -as.
2. The Dat. Sing. fern, in early Latin occasionally ended in -SI, and in the oldest
inscriptions in -5.
3. In early inscriptions the -d of the Abl. is occasionally retained.
4. Very rarely in early inscriptions does the Nom. PL masc. end in -els, and in one
case the Nom. PI. fern of a perfect participle ends in -SI.
5. In poetry, but at all periods, we find -um alongside of -Srtun and -arum in the
Gen. Plural.
6. In the Dat. and Abl. PL -ils from adjectives in -ius is often contracted to Is ;
usually in names of months and in adjectives formed from proper names. In early
inscriptions -abus is found occasionally for -Is in the Dat. and Abl. PL feminine.
76. The so-called pronominal adjectives alter, one of the
two; altemter (a combination of alter and uter), either of
the two ; alius, other; neuter, neither ; nullus, none; solus,
sole ; totus, whole ; ullus, any ; unus, one ; uter, which of the
two, and their compounds, show the following variations in
declension •
ADJECTIVES.
39
1. They usually make the Gen. Sing, in -Ius for all genders.
REMARKS. — i. The Gen. alius is very rare, and as a possessive its
place is usually taken by alignus.
2. The I of the ending -Ius (except in alius) could be shortened in
poetry. .This was usually the case with alter, and regularly in the
compounds of uter ; as, utriusque.
NOTE.— The regular forms are early and rare ; in classical prose only nulll (Cic.
Eosc. Cam. 16, 48) and occasionally aliae.
2. They usually make the Dat. Sing, in -I.
NOTE. — Regular forms are sometimes found, but in classical prose only alterae,
null5, toto, and perhaps tStae. AH is found in early Latin for alii.
3. In the compound alteruter we find usually both parts declined ;
sometimes the second only.
4. Alius makes Nom. and Ace. Sing, neuter irregularly : aliud.
NOTE.— Alis and alid, for alius and aliud, are early and rare ; the latter, however,
occurs several times in LUCK, and once in CATULLUS.
Adjectives of the Third Declension.
77. The declension of the adjectives of the Third Declen-
sion follows the rules given for the substantives.
Most adjectives of the Third Declension are vowel stems
in -i, with two (rarely three) endings in the Nominative.
The remaining adjectives of the Third Declension are con-
sonant stems and have one ending only in the Nominative.
ADJECTIVES OF TWO ENDINGS.
78. i. These have (except stems in -ri) one ending in the
Nominative for masculine and feminine, one for neuter.
Most stems in -i form the masculine and feminine alike,
with Nominative in s ; but the Nominative neuter weakens
the characteristic i into e. (Compare mare, sea.)
2. Several stems in -i, preceded by r (cr, tr, br), form the
Nominative masculine, not by affixing s, but by dropping the
i and inserting short e before the r, as, stem acri, sharp,
Nom., acer (m.), acris (f.), acre (n.).
These adjectives are acer, alacer, campester, celeber, celer, equester,
paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, Silvester, terrester, volucer, and the last
four months ; and are sometimes called adjectives of three endings.
The e belongs to the stem in celer, celeris, celere, swift, and therefore
appears in all cases.
ADJECTIVES.
N.
M.
F.
N.
facile,
acer, sharp,
acris,
acre,
facilis,
acris,
acris,
acris,
facili,
acri,
acri,
acri,
facile,
acrem,
acrem,
acre,
facile,
acer,
acris,
acre,
facili.
acri.
acri.
acri.
facilia,
acres,
acres,
acria,
facilium,
acrium,
acrium,
acrium,
facilibus,
acribus,
acribus,
acribus,
facilia,
acres (Is),
acres (is),
acria,
facilia,
acres,
acres,
acria,
facilibus.
acribus.
acribus.
acribus.
M. and F.
SG. — N. facilis, easy.
6. facilis,
D. facili,
Ac. facilem,
V. facilis,
Ab. facili.
PL.— N. faciles,
G. facilium,
D. facilibus,
Ac. faciles (Is),
V. faciles,
Ab. facilibus.
REMARK. — Stems in -ali and -ari differ from the substantival declen-
sion in not suffering apocope in the Nom. Sing, neuter, except occa-
sionally capital. See 56.
79. REMARKS. — i. Many adjectives of two endings (except stems
in -ri) have also -e in the Ablative. This is found chiefly in the poets,
very rarely, if ever, in classical prose, occasionally in early and pre-
Augustan prose, and more often in inscriptions. When, however,
these adjectives become proper names, -e is the rule. See 57, R. 2, N.
2. The Gen. PL in -urn is found occasionally in inscriptions, fre-
quently in the poets. In classical prose are found only Titiensum and
familiarum.
NOTES. — 1. The Nom. PI. has in early Latin not unfrequently -Is.
2. In the Ace. PL, masc. and fern., of adjectives, the ending -Is (els) is found along-
side of -Ss in every period of the language, though in decreasing proportion, and after
the Augustan period principally in omnls.
ADJECTIVES OF ONE ENDING.
80. Adjective stems of one ending (consonant stems) close
with 1, r, s, a p mute, a k mute, or a t mute. Examples are :
vigil, alert, memor, mindful, pauper, poor, cicur, tame, pubgs, adult, vetus, old,
vigilis. memoris. pauperis. cicuris. puberis, veteris.
ir ops, poor,
inopis.
trux, savage,
trucis.
particeps, sharing,
participis.
audax, bold, fellx, lucky,
audacis. fellcis.
caelebs, unmarried,
caelibis.
duplex, double, fer5x,./2
duplicis. ferocis.
dives, rich, deses, slothful, compos,posses8edof, prudens, wise, concors, harmcnious,
dlvitis. desidis. compotis. prudentis. coacordis.
ADJECTIVES. 41
Present active participles are also consonant stems and
follow the same declension.
81. The stem varieties are :
1. Liquid stems in (a) -1: vigil (G. vigil-is), alert, pervigil; (b) -r: par(G.
par-is), equal, impar (these two lengthen the vowel in the Nom.), compar , and three
others ; pauper (G. pauper-is), poor, uber ; memor (G. memor-is), mindful, im-
memor ; concolor (G. -6r-is), and three other compounds of color ; degener (G.
-er-is), from genus (G. gener-is).
2. Sibilant stems in (a) -s : exos (G. exoss-is), boneless (LucR.) ; (b) -r : gnarus
(G. gnarur-is ; PLAUT.), Ligus, vetus ; pubgs (G. puber-is), impubes.
3. Mute stems in (a) a K-mute : audax (G. audac-is), bold, and four others ; fglix
(G. fslic-is), pernix, atrox (G. atrSc-is), ferSx, v6l6x ; exlgx (G. -16g-is) ; trux
(G. truc-is), redux ; the multiplicatives in -plex (G. -plic-is), as simplex, etc. (b) A
P-mute : inops (G. inop-is) ; caelebs (G. caelib-is) ; compounds of -ceps (G. -cip-is,
from capere), as particeps, and of -ceps (G. -cipit-is, from caput), as anceps, prae-
ceps (PLAUT. sometimes uses, in the Nom., ancipes, praecipes, etc.). (c) A T-mute :
hebes (G. hebet-is) and three others ; locuplSs (G. -pl6t-is) and three others ; dives
(G. dlvit-is), for which in poetry dls (G. dlt-is), SOSpes ; compos (G. compot-is),
impos ; superstes (G. -sti-tis), ales ; exherSs (G. ed-is) ; dSses (G. dSsid-is),
reses ; compounds from substantives : consors (G. -sort-is), exsors ; concors, dis-
cors, misericors, socors, vecors ; expers (G. -ert-is), iners, sellers ; amens (G.
ament-is), demens ; intercus (G. cut-is) ; pernox (G. -noct-is) ; tope's (G. -ped-is),
quadrupSs, alipes ; adjectives and participles in -ans, -6ns (G. -ant-is, -ent-is) •
and proper names in -as (G. at-is), -is (G. -it-is), -ns (G. -nt-is), -rs (G. -rt-is),
Arplnas, Samnls, Veiens, Gamers.
82. The consonant stems have the same forms in all the
genders, except that in the Accusative Singular, and in the
Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, the neuter is
distinguished from the masculine and feminine.
In the oblique cases they follow in part the declension of
vowel stems ; thus,
1. In the Ablative Singular they have I and e — when used
as adjectives commonly I ; when used as substantives com-
monly e.
The participles, as such, have e ; but used as substantives
or adjectives, either e or i, with tendency to I.
2. In the neuter Plural they have ia ; except vetus, old,
which has vetera. Many have no neuter.
3. In the Genitive Plural they have : ium, when the stem-
characteristic is preceded by a long vowel or a consonant ;
um, when the characteristic is preceded by a short vowel.
The participles have ium.
42 ADJECTIVES.
M. and P. N. M. and F. N. M. and F. N.
So — N. f€lix,lucky,Rllx, priid5ns,wMf, prudens, vetus, old, vetus,
G. felicis, fellcis, prudentis, prftdentis, veteris, veteris,
D. fellci, feiicl, prudent!, prfldentl, veteri, veteri,
Ac. felicein, felix, prudentem, prudens, veterem, vetus,
V. felix, fellx, prudens, prudens, vetus, vetus,
Ab. fgllcl(e) felicl(e) prfidentl(e) prudent! (e) vetere(l) vetere(i)
PL.— N. felices, felicia, prudentes, prudentia, vetere"s, vetera,
G. felicium, fSlicium, prudentium, prfldentium, veterum, veterura,
D. fellcibus, fellcibus, prudentibus, prudentibus, veteribus, veteribus,
Ac. felices, felicia, prudentes, prudentia, veteres, vetera,
V. fgllces, felicia, prudentes, prudentia, veteres, vetera,
Ab. fellcibus, fellcibus. prudentibus, prudentibus. veteribus, veteribus.
M. and F. N. M. and F. N.
So.— N. amans, loving,
amans, PL.— amantes,
amantia,
G. amantis,
amantis,
amantium,
amantium,
D. amanti,
amanti,
amantibus,
amantibus,
Ac. amantem,
amans,
amantes (Is),
amantia,
Y. amans,
amans,
amantes,
amantia,
Ab. amante (I).
amante (D.
amantibus.
amantibus.
83. REMARK. — In early fyid late Latin, and at all periods in the
poets, -e is often found for -I in the Abl. Singular. In classical prose
we find regularly compote, deside, impubere, participe, paupere, pubere,
superstite, vetere, and frequently divite (but always ditl), quadrupede,
sapiente. With participles, -I is usual when they are used as adjectives,
but classical prose shows -e also in antecedens, candens, consentiens,
despicicns, effluens, bians, imminens, influens, profluens, consequens (but
sequens not before LIVY), titubans, vertens.
NOTES.— 1. In the Nom. and Ace. PL -Is for 6s belongs to early Latin and the poets,
but a few cases of the Ace. are still found in CICEKO. In the case of participles -Is is
very common, and is the rule in VERGIL and HORACE. In the neuter, -a for -ia is
found only in ubera, vetera ; dltia is always used for the unsyncopated form
dlvitia.
2. Compound adjectives, whose primitives had -nm in Gen. PL, have usually -urn
instead of -ium ; quadrupes, quadrupedum, and other compounds of p6s ; inops,
inopum ; supplex, supplicum. Also, cicur , cicurum ; vetus, veterum ; dives,
divitum; locuples, locuplStum (rare, usually -ium). In the poets and hi later
writers, -urn is not unfrequently found where classical prose uses -ium.
Irregular Adjectives.
84. A. ABUNDANTIA.
i. Some adjectives which end in -us, -a, -um, in the classical times,
show occasionally in early Latin, in the poets, and in later Latin, forms
in -is, -e, e. g.t imbecillus and imbecillis; InfrSnus and Infrenis; biiugus
and biiugis ; violentus and violens ; indecorus and indecoris ; so also
perpetuus and pcrpes. In a number of other adjectives the variant
forms are very rare or disputed.
ADJECTIVES. 43
2. Many adjectives which end in -is, -e, in the classical times, show
parallel forms in -us, -a, -um, in early Latin, and more rarely in late
Latin. Adjectives in -us, -a, -um, in early Latin, seem to have had a
tendency to go over into forms in -is, -e. Thus, hilarus is the regular
form in early Latin ; in CICERO it is used side by side with hilaris,
and later hilaris is universal. Other examples in the classical period
are inermis and inermus ; imberbis and imberbus ; alaris and alarius ;
ausiliaris and auxiliarius ; intercalaris and intercalarius ; talaris and
talarius.
85. B. DEFECTIVE.
1. Several adjectives lack a Nom. Singular, wholly or in part : as,
cetera (f.), ceterum, perperum (n.), nuperum (n.), primoris (G.), bimaris
(G-.), bimatris (Gr.), tricorporis (Gr.), and a few others.
2. Some adjectives are defective in other cases : thus, exspes and
perdius, -a are found only in the Nom. ; exlex only in the Nom. and Ace.
(exlggem) ; pernox only in Nom., Abl. (pernocte), and Nom. PI. (pernoctSs,
rare) ; centimanus has only the Ace. Sing. (HoB., Ov.) ; also unimanus
(Liv.), and a few others.
C. INDECLINABLES.
NSquam ; potis, and pote (early) ; frugf ; macte (mactus, -um, very
rare) ; necesse, necessum, and necessus (early and poetical) ; volup and
volupe (early) ; and the judicial dainnas.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
86. The Degrees of Comparison are : Positive, Compara-
tive, and Superlative.
The Comparative is formed by adding to the consonant
stems the endings -ior for the masculine and feminine, and
-ins for the neuter.
The Superlative is formed by adding to the consonant
stems the endings -is-simus, -a, -um (earlier -is-sumus).
Vowel stems, before forming the Comparative and Super-
lative, drop their characteristic vowel.
POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
M. and F. N.
altus,a,um, high, altior, higher, altius, altissimus, a, um, highest.
fortis, e, brave, fortior, fortius, fortissimus.
utilis, e, useful, utilior, utilius, utilissimus.
audax, bold, audacior, audacius, audacissimus.
prudSns, wise, prudentior, prudentius, prudentissimus.
NOTE.— In early Latin we find very rarely -i5s for ior ; also -ior used for the neuter
ae well.
44 ADJECTIVES.
Peculiarities.
87. i. Adjectives in -er add the Superlative ending (-rumus) -rimus
(for -simus by assimilation ; see 9, i) directly to the Nominative mascu-
line. The Comparative follows the rule.
POSITIVE. COMPABATIVB. SUPERLATIVE.
miser, a, urn, wretched, miserior, miserius, miserrimus.
celer, is, e, swift, celerior, celerius, celerrimua.
acer, acris, acre, sharp, acrior, acrius, acerrimus.
REMARKS. — i. Dexter, right, and sinister, left, have always dexterior
and sinisterior in the Comparative. Deterior, worse, dSterrimus, lacks a
Positive.
2. Vetus, old, has Comp. veterior (archaic) or vetustior ; Sup.,
veterrimus. Maturus, ripe, has occasionally Sup. maturrimus in addi-
tion to the normal maturissimus.
NOTE. — In early Latin and in Inscriptions this rule is occasionally violated. Thus
celerissimus in ENNIUS ; integrissimus, miserissimus, in inscriptions.
2. Some Comparatives in -er-ior, whqse Positive is lacking or rare,
form the Superlative either in -remus by metathesis ; or in -imus or
-umus ; or in both. These are: citerior, on this side, citimus (rare);
exterior, outer, extre*mus, extimus (latter not in Cic.) ; dexterior (87,
i, R. i ; once in Cic.), dextimus (rare ; not in Cic.) ; Inferior, lower,
Infinras, imus ; interior, inner, intimus ; posterior, hinder, postremus,
postumus ; superior, upper, suprSmus, summus.
3. Six adjectives in -ilis add -limus to the stem, after dropping -i, to
form the Superlative ; perhaps by assimilation : facilis, easy ; difficilis,
hard; similis, like ; dissimilis, unlike; gracilis, slender, and humilis, low.
facilis, Comp. facilior, Sup. facillimus.
4. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, -volus, borrow the Comparative and
Superlative from the participial forms in -dlcens, -ficens, and -volgns.
benevolus, benevolent, Comp. benevolentior, Sup. benevolentissimus.
maledicus, scurrilous. maledicentior, maledicentissimus.
magnificus, distinguished. magnificentior, niagnificentissimus.
NOTE.— BenevolSns, malevolens, maledicSns, still occur in early Latin.
5. In like manner egenus and prSvidus form their Comparative and
Superlative.
egSnus, needy, egentior, egentissimus.
providus, far-sighted, prSvidentior, pr5videntissim.ua.
ADJECTIVES. 45
6. Adjectives in -us (os), preceded by a vowel (except those in -quos),
form the Comparative and Superlative by means of magis and maxime,
more and most.
idoneua,./?<, Comp. magis idSneus, Sup. maximS idoneus.
But
antiques, old, Comp. antlquior, Sup. antlquissimus.
REMARK. — But plus, pious, which lacks the Comparative, forms the
Superlative regularly, piissimus (in inscriptions also pientissimus) ; like-
wise in late Latin, impius.
NOTES. — 1. A few words, chiefly in early Latin, show the normal comparison. In
Cic. only, assiduissimS (adv.) and alsius.
2. Comparison by means of plus and plurimum is late.
7. Some Comparatives and Superlatives are in use, whilst the cor-
responding Positive is either lacking or rare.
So deterior (87, i, B. i) ; 8cior, swift, ocissimus ; potior, better, potissimus ;
exterior, outer (87, a), from exterus, on the outside, and prep, extra, without;
superior, upper (87, 2), from superus, on the top, and prep, supra, above ; Inferior,
lower (87, 2), from Inferus, below, and prep, infra, below ; posterior, hinder (87, 2),
from posterus, coming after, and prep, post, after ; citerior, on this side (87, 2),
from citer, and prep, citra, on this side.
f8. The Positive stem of existing Comparatives is sometimes met with
only in a preposition or an adverb ; as, ante, before ; anterior, that is
before ; prope, near ; propior, proximus ; ulterior, further, ultimus, from
ultra, beyond; interior, inner, intimus, from intra, within; prior, former,
primus, first, from pro, before ; sequior (late), worse, from secus.
9. Many adjectives lack one or both of the degrees of comparison ;
especially those denoting material, relationship, time, etc.
Novus, new, falsus, untrue, meritus, deserved, have no Comparative.
Longinquos, afar, propinqnos, near, salutaris, healthful, iuvenis, young (Com-
parative iunior), and senex, old (Comparative senior), have no Superlative.
"Youngest" and "oldest" are expressed by minimus, maximus (natu).
NOTE.— The Plautine and late medioximus, middlemost, lacks Positive and Com-
parative.
10. Dives, rich, shows in Cic. only divitior and dlvitissimus ; otherwise
the Comparative and Superlative are found principally in poetry and
later prose, the more usual forms being the syncopated ditior, ditissimus.
k88. Participles used as adjectives are subject also to the
ame laws of comparison : as, amans, loving, amantior,
unantissimus ; apertus, open, apertior, apertissimus.
46 ADJECTIVES.
89. The Superlative follows the declension of adjectives
of Three Endings of the First and Second Declensions. The
Comparative is declined according to the Third Declension,
thus :
M. andF. N. M. and F. N.
So.— N. altior, altius. PL.— altiorSs, altiora.
G. altioris, altioris. altiorum, altiorum.
J). altiori, altiorl. altioribus, altioribus.
Ac. altiorem, altius. altiores, altiora.
V. altior, altius. altiores, altiora.
Ab. altiore and -I, altiore and -I. altioribus, altioribus.
REMARKS. — i. In classical prose the Abl. Sing, ends »n -e. In the
poets and in early and late prose often in -I.
2. Extremely rare is the ending -is for -6s in the Nom. Plural. In
the Ace. PI. this ending -Is (-els) is more common but still not fre-
quent, and confined mainly to plurls, minorls, maiorls, melioris. The
neuter in -ia is found rarely in compluria, and perhaps once in pluria.
3. The Gen. PL in -ium is found in plurium and complurium only.
90. Irregular Comparison.
bonus, good, melior, melius, optimus.
malus, bad, peior, peius, pessimus.
magnus, great, maior, maius, maximus.
parvus, small, minor, minus, minimus,
multus, much, 8. — plus (no Dat. nor Abl.), plurimus.
PI. plurSs, plura.
complurSs, complura and -ia.
nequam, worthless, nSquior, ngquius, nequissimus.
firugi (indecl.), frugal, frugalior, frugalissimus.
ADVERBS.
91. Most adverbs are either oblique cases or mutilated
forms of oblique cases of nominal or pronominal stems.
The cases from which they are derived are principally the
Accusative and the Ablative.
i. (a) From the Accusative are Substantival Adverbs in -tim. This
was a favorite formation, and is used very often in all periods. In the
classical times the adverbs of this form are :
Acervatim, articulatim, centuriatim, certatim, generatim, gradatim,
gregatim, membratim, paulatim, prlvatim, separatim, singulatim, statim,
summatim, virltim, tributim, strictim, pedetemptim, raptim, furtim, partim,
praesertim, confestim, and a few others ; disguised forms of -tim are : caesim, in-
cisim, sensim, cursim, passim, vicissim, for caed-tim (9, 1-3), etc.; also interim.
ADVEEBS. 47
(I) A few very common adverbs are, perhaps, from Accusative Sin-
gular feminine of adjectives and pronominal stems. Chiefly clam,
secretly, coram, in one's presence, palam, openly, perperam, wrongly, tarn,
so, quam, as, aliquam, some, iam, already; and forms in -fariam, as bi-
fariam, multifariam, etc.
(c) The Accusative Singular neuter of many adjectival and prono-
minal stems is used as an adverb. This is true of all Comparatives.
Multum, much ; paulum, a little ; nimiurn, too much ; cSterum, for the
rest; primum, first; postremum, finally; potissimum, chiefly ; facile,
easily ; dulce, sweetly ; trlste, sadly ; impune, scot-free ; aliquantum,
somewhat, and others.
To the Comparatives belong magis, more ; nimis, too ; satis, enough.
(d) The Accusative Plural feminine is found in alias, at other times,
perhaps in foras, out-of-doors. The Accusative Plural neuter is found
in alia, cetera, omnia, and occasionally in reliqua and a few others.
2. (a) From the Ablative are some substantival adverbs ; the princi-
pal ones in classical Latin being domo, at home; impendio, greatly;
initio, at the outset ; modo, only ; oppido, very; principio, in the begin-
ning ; private, privately ; vulgo, commonly ; forte, by chance ; magnopere,
greatly, and other compounds of -opere ; gratiis, for nothing, and ingra-
tils, and a few others.
(5) Ablatives are also adverbs in 8 from adjectives in -us and -er :
altus, lofty, alts ; pulcher, beautiful, pulchrS ; miser, wretched, misers.
Also fer6 and ferine (Sup.), almost.
(c) The Ablative of some adjectives and pronouns serves as an
adverb :
tuto, safely; falsS, falsely ; perpetuo, ceaselessly ; continue, forthwith;
improvise, unexpectedly ; prlmo, at first ; h5c, here; ist6, there, etc.
(d) In a few cases the adverbial form is the Abl. Sing, feminine :
alia, otherwise ; aliqua, somehow}; dextera and dextra, to the right ;
sinistra and laeva, to the left hand; qua, on which side; recta,
straightway, and some others.
(e) A large number of these adjectives show adverbs in two end-
ings, sometimes with a difference in meaning :
consults and consults, purposely ; certs, at least, and certo, certainly
(certe scio, / certainly know ; certo scio, J know for certain) ; rar6, thinly,
and rar6, seldom ; vSrS, in truth, and vSro, true but ; rSctS, correctly, and
recta, straightway ; dextera or dextra, to the right ; and dexterS, skilfully.
(/) Ablatives are also qul, how (archaic), nSqulquam, to no purpose;
aliSqul, otherwise; perhaps also diu, by day, and its compounds.
48 ADVERBS.
3. Locative in origin are the following, in addition to those men-
tioned under 37, 5 : dig (in combination with numeral adjectives in
early Latin, as die septimi) and its compounds cottidie, daily, hodie, to-
day, pridie, the day before, postrldie, the day after ; quotannis, yearly ;
foris, outside. Also many forms from the pronominal stems, as hie, illic,
istic (isti belongs to early Latin and VERG.); sic, so, ut (uti, utei), as;
ibi, there, and its compounds alibi, ibidem ; ubi (cubi), where, and its
compounds.
4. A number of adverbs cannot be referred to. a definite case, as :
adverbs of separation: bine, hence, illinc (illim), istinc (istim), thence;
temporal adverbs : tune, then, cum, when, quondam, once, quando, when ?
and its compounds; also, ante, before ; post (poste), after; paene, almost ;
prope, propter, near ; saepe, often ; circiter, around; praeter, past ; ergo,
therefore; eras, to-morrow ; baud (hau, haut), not ; item, likewise ; susque
deque, up and down ; viz, scarcely.
92. i- Adjectives and participles of the Third Declension form their
adverbs by adding -ter (-iter) to the stem ; stems in -nt dropping the t,
and stems in a k-mute inserting the connecting vowel i before the end-
ing ; also a few adjectives of the Second Declension :
fortis, brave, fortiter ; ferox, wild, ferSciter ; prudSns, foreseeing, priidenter.
Exceptions : audax, bold, audac-ter (seldom audaciter) ; difficilis, hard
to do, difficulter, difficiliter (but generally, n5n facile, vix, aegrg), and others.
2. A large number of adjectives of the Second Declension in -us, -a,
-urn, and -er, -era, -erum, form in early and late Latin their adverbs by
dropping the stem vowel and adding -iter (those in -tus added -er
only). Many of these occur in classical writers alongside of the normal
form in -6 : humaniter and humane, humanely ; largiter and large,
lavishly ; turbulenter and turbulente, riotously.
3. Some adverbs of origin are formed from substantival or adjectival
stems by the ending -tus. In classical Latin mainly antlquitus, from
early time; dlvlnitus, from the gods ; funditus, from the foundation ; peni-
tus, from the depths ; radicitus, from the, roots ; also intus, from within.
4. The termination -versus, -vorsum, is used to show direction whither ;
but in classical Latin it is found principally in the adverbs : intrSrsus
(intrSvorsus), inwards; prorsus (-um), onwards; rursus (-urn, rusum),
back ; sursum (susum), up; vorsum, towards.
5. A very large number of adverbs are formed by adding various
other terminations ; as, -de : inde, thence, unde, whence ; -dem :
pridem, long ago, itidem, likewise, etc. ; -do : quandS, when, etc. ;
•darn : quondam, once ; -dum : dudum, a while ago ; vixdum, hardly
yet, etc.; -per: nuper, lately, parumper, a little, semper, always, etc.;
-quam: umquam, ever, numquam, never, etc.; -secus: ertrinsecus,
outside, etc.; -tenus: quatenus, how far 9 etc.
NUMERALS.
49
6. Syntactical and miscellaneous : admodum, very (to a degree), dSnuo,
anew, imprimis ; super, above, and its compounds, desuper, insuper ; ex-
templo, at once ; usque, to, and its compounds ; invicem, in turn ; adeo,
so / antea, before ; interea, meanwhile ; postea, after ; praeterea, besides ;
propterea, on that account, and a few others.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
93. The Comparative of the adverb is the Accusative
neuter of the Comparative of the adjective. The Superla-
tive ends in -is-sime, -er-rim6, etc., according to the Super-
lative of the adjective.
POSITIVE.
altS,
loftily,
pulchre,
beautifully,
miserS,
poorly,
fortiter,
bravely,
audacter,
boldly.
tut5,
safely,
facile,
easily,
bene,
well.
male,
ill,
[parvus],
small.
[magnus],
great,
multum,
much,
cito,
quickly,
diu,
long,
saepe,
often,
nuper,
recently,
satis,
enough,
COMPARATIVE.
altius,
pulchrius,
miserius,
fortius,
audacius,
tutius,
facilius,
melius,
peius,
minus, less,
magis, more,
plus, more,
citius,
diutius,
saepius,
SUPERLATIVE.
altissime.
pulcherrime.
miserrime.
fortissime.
audacissime.
tutissime.
facillime.
optime.
pessime.
minimS, least.
maxiine, most.
plurimum.
citissime.
diutissimS.
saepissime.
nuperrimS.
satius, better,
NUMERALS.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
94. The Cardinal numerals answer the question qnot,
how many? and are the numbers used in counting. The
Ordinal numerals are derived from these and answer the
question quotus, which one in the series ? They are as fol-
lows :
2. ORDINAL NUMBERS.
primus, -a, -urn (prior)
secundus (alter)
tertius
quartus
quintus
sertus
septimus
1. CARDINAL, NUMBERS.
1
I
unus, una, unum
2
II
duo, duae, duo
3
III
tres, tria
4
IV
quattuor
5
V
qulnque
G
VI
sex
7
VII
septem
4
NUMERALS.
1. CABDINAL NUMBERS.
8
VIII
oetO
9
IX
novem
10
X
decem
11
XI
Go'decim
12
XII
duojdecim
13
XIII
tre&ecim
14
XIV
quattuordecini
15
XV
quio;decim
16
XVI
sejlecim
17
XVII
septendecim
18
XVIII
duodeylgintl
19
XIX
undeVlginti
20
XX
viginti
21
XXI
vigintl unus
22
XXII
vlginti duo
23
XXIII
vigintl trgs
24
XXIV
vlginti quattuor
25
XXV
vlginti qulnque
26
XXVI
vigintl sex
27
XXVII
vigintl septem
28
XXVIII
duodeplginta
29
XXIX
undetriginta
30
XXX
trlginta
40
XL
quadraginta
50
L
quinquaginta
60
LX
sexdginta
70
LXX
septwaginta
80
LXXX
octoginta
90
xc
n5naginta
100
c
centum
101
CI
centum et unus
115
cxv
centum et qulndecim
120
cxx
centum et viginti
121
CXXI
centum vigintl unus
200
CO
ducentl, -ae, -a
300
ccc
trecentl
400
cccc
quadrmgentl
500
D(IQ)
qytingenti
600
DC
.sr.s-centl
700
DCC
septiwgentl
800
DCCC
octtngenti
900
DCCCC
Ttongenti
1000
M (CIO)
mille
2. ORDINAL NTTMBEBS.
octavus
nonus
decimus
undecimus
duodecimus
tertius decimus
quartus decimus
qulntus decimus
sextus decimus
Septimus decimus
duodevicesimus
undevicgsimus
vlcesiimis
vicesimus primus
vlcesimus secundus
vicesimus tertius
vlcgsimus quartus
vlcesimus qulntus
vlcesimus seztus
vlcesimus septimus
duodetricesimua
undgtricgsimus
tricesimus
quadragSsimus
quinquaggsimus
sexagesimus
septuagesimus
octoggsimus
nonagesimus
centesimus
centesimus primus [mus
centesimus (et) quintus deci-
centesimus vlcesimus
centesimus vicesimus primus
ducentesimus
trecentesimus
quadringentesimus
quingentesimus
sescentesimus
septingentesimus
octingentesimus
nongentesimus
millesimus
NUMERALS.
1. CARDINAL NUMBERS.
1001 MI mille et unus
1101 MCI mille centum unus
1120 MCXX mille centum viginti
[Onus
1121 MCXXI miUe centum viginti
1200 MCC mille ducentl
2000 MM duo niilia (niillia)
bina milia
2222 duo milia ducentl vi-
ginti duo
5000 100 quinque milia
quina milia
10,000 CCIOO decem milia
tiena milia
21,000 unum et viginti milia
100,000 centum milia
centena milia [milia
1,000,000 decies centena (centum)
2. ORDINAL NUMBERS.
millesimus primus
millesimus centesimus primus
millesimus centesimus vlce-
simus [simus primus
millesimus centesimus vlc6-
millesimus ducentesimus
bis millesimus
bis millesimus ducentesimus
vicesimus secundus
quinquies millesimus
decies millesimus
semel et vlcies millesimus
centies millesimus
decies centies millesimus
95. The Cardinal numerals are indeclinable, except : unus,
one, duo, two, tres, three, the hundreds beginning with
ducentl, two hundred, and the plural milia, thousands, which
forms milium and milibus.
N. duo, two,
duae,
duo,
G. duorum,
duarum,
duorum,
D. duobus,
duabus,
duobus,
A. duos, duo,
duas,
duo,
Ab. duobus,
duabus,
duobus,
M and F.
tres, three,
trium,
tribus,
trgs, tris,
tribus,
N.
tria.
trium.
tribus.
tria.
tribus.
Like dud is declined ambo, -ae, -5, both.
REMARKS. — i. For the declension of unus see 76. It occurs also in
plural forms in connection with pluralia tantum, as iinls lltteris (Cic.
Alt., v. 9, 2), or with another numeral in the sense only ; in the latter
sense also with substantives.
2. The Gen. of the hundreds, ducentl, etc,., ends in -umand not -orum.
This must be distinguished from the use of the neuter singular in -urn
as a collective,, as argenti sescentum (Luc.), a six hundred of silver.
3. The PI. milia, milium, milibus, are treated almost always as sub-
stantives, the adjectival form being the Singular.
NOTES. — 1. The form oinos for finus is found in early Latin. A Voc. fine is occa-
sional (CAT., 37, 17).
2. For duae late Latin shows occasionally duo, and in inscriptions dua, for neuter
52 NUMERALS.
duo, is sometimes found. The Gen. duum (old duom) for duSrum is not nnfre-
quent. In the Dat. and Abl., duo is found in inscriptions, and for ambobus occasion-
ally ambls. In the Ace. PI. masc., duo and ambo for duos and ambos are quite com-
mon in early Latin, and also in classical times, but the better forms are duos, ambos.
3. Quattor is found for quattuor occasionally in inscriptions, and in early poetry
quattuor was sometimes scanned as a dissyllable.
4. In inscriptions the forms meilia and mlllia are also found.
5. In regard to spelling of the Ordinals we find in early Latin qulnctus as well as
qulntus ; septumus arid decumus regularly, and often the endings -gnsimus and
-Snsumus in Ordinals from vicgsimus on.
96. 1. Compound Numerals.
1. From 10 to 20, as in the tables, or separately : decem et tr5a.
2. The numbers 18, 19, 28, 29, etc., are commonly expressed by
subtraction ; occasionally, as in English, but never in CICERO, and very
rarely in other classical authors. duodScentum is not found, and unde-
centum but once (PLIN. MAI.).
3. From 20 to 100, the compound numerals stand in the same order
as the English : twenty-one, vlginti unus ; or, one and twenty, Onus et
(atque) vigintl ; as, twenty-one years old : annos unum et vlginti (vlginti
unum), unum et vlginti annos natus. But compounds like septuaginta et
tres are not uncommon, though avoided by good writers.
4. From 100 on, et may be inserted after the first numeral, if there
be but two numbers ; as, centum quattuor, or centum et quattuor. If
the smaller number precedes, the et should be inserted ; likewise in all
cases where a word is inserted within the compound numeral, as
ducentl anni et vlginti. If there be three numerals, the et is regularly
omitted ; exceptions are very rare.
5. In compound ordinals alter is preferred to secundus.
6. Centena milia is often omitted after the numeral adverb decies
= 1,000,000 ; especially in stating sums of money.
7. Fractions are expressed by pars (omitted or expressed) in com-
•bination with dimidia (|), tertia (£), quarta (J), etc. A Plural numera-
tor is expressed by a Cardinal ; as, duae qulntae (f ). The fraction is
often broken up ; as, pars dimidia et tertia (% — -J- + $). The even de-
nominators could be divided ; as, dimidia tertia (i x J = £). Instead
of dimidia without pars, dlmidium is used.
2. Numeral Signs.
D is short for 10, M for CIO. Adding O on the right of 10 multiplies by 10 ;
100 = 5000 ; 1000 = 50,000. Putting C before as often as O stands after multiplies the
right-hand number by 2 ; CIO = 1000 ; CCIOO = 10,000 ; CCCIOOO = 100,000. A line
above multiplies by 1000 ; V = 5000. A line above and at each side multiplies by
100,000: |xim| =1,400,000. These signs may be combined : thus, |xill| XXX VII D
or |xni| XXXVII MD = 1,337,500. PLIN., Jf. H. iv., 12, 24. Other signs are \b , J-
(inscr.) for 50, <A oo, 0 (inscr.) for 1000, and ® for 100,000 (inscr.), and q for
500,000 (inscr^.
NUMERALS.
53
97.
3. Distributive Numerals.
1 singuli, -ae, -a, one each. 30
2 bini, -ae, -a, two each. 40
3 ternl (trim) 50
4 quaternl 60
5 quini 70
6 sen! 80
7 septeni 90
8 octonl 100
9 noveni 102
10 deni 125
11 undgnl 200
12 duodeni 300
13 terni d6nl 400
14 quaternl deni 500
15 quini deni 600
16 sen! deni 700
17 septeni deni 800
18 octonl deni, duodevlceni 900
19 novSni deni, undevicSnl 1000
20 vicenl 2000
21 vlceni singuli 3000
22 vicenl bini, bini et vicenl 10,000
28 duodetrlcenl 100,000
29 iindetrlceni
tricenl
quadrageni
qulnquaggni
sexagem
septuagenl
octogSni
nonagenl
centeni
centeni bini
centeni vicenl quini
ducenl
treceni
quadringenl
quingeni
sexceni fsesceni)
septingeni
octingeni
nongenl
singula mflia
bina mflia
trina mflia
dena mflia
centena mflia
These answer the question quotBni, how many each f
REMARKS. — i. The Gen. PI. masc. and neuter ends usually in -urn,
except that singulus has always singulorum, and CICERO uses binorum.
2. The Distributives are used with an exactness which is foreign to
our idiom, whenever repetition is involved, as in the multiplication
table. But when singuli is expressed, the Cardinal may be used.
3. The Distributives are used with pluralia tantum : blnae litterae,
two epistles. But with these unl is used for one, trinl for three : unae
litterae, trinae litterae.
4. The same rules as to the insertion or omission of et apply to the
Distributives as to the Ordinals (96, 1. 3, 4).
NOTES.— 1. The poets and later prose writers occasionally use the Distributives for
Cardinals, with words other than plQralia tantum (B. 3) ; also some forms of the
Singular. Especially noteworthy is the combination trlnum nundinum, which is
technical, and therefore found also in model prose.
2. Parallel forms not found in classical times are quadrlni (early, late), and the
late du(o)cent€nl, trecenteni, quadringenteni, quingentSni, ses(x)cent6ni,
milleni, etc.
54
NUMERALS.
4. Multiplicative Numerals.
Only the following forms occur :
1 simplex, single, 5 quincuplex
2 duplex, double, 7 septemplex
3 triplex, triple, 10 decemplex
4 quadruplex, quadruple. 100 centuples
These answer the question, how many fold ?
5. Proportional Numerals.
Only the following forms occur t
1 simplus, -a, -urn, single, 4 quadruplus
2 duplus, double. 7 septuplus
3 triplus 8 octuplus
These answer the question, how many times as great ?
98.
NUMERAL ADVERBS.
1
semel, once,
22
bis et vlcies, vlcies et bis,
2
bis, twice.
vlcies bis *
8
ter
30
tricies
4
quater
40
quadragies
5
qulnquies (-ens)
50
qulnquagies
6
sexies (-ens)
60
sexagies
7
septies (-ens)
70
septuagies
8
octies (-ens)
80
octogies
g
novies (-ens)
90
nonagies
10
decies (-ens)
100
centies
11
undecies (-ens)
200
ducenties
12
duodecies, etc.
400
quadringentiSs
13
ter decies, tredecies
500
quingenties
14
quater decies, quattuordecies
600
sexcenties (sescentieo)
15
qulnquies decies, quindecies
700
septingenties
10
sexies decies, sedecies
800
octingenties
17
septies decies
900
nongenties
18
duodevlcies, octies decies
1,000
mlllies
1'J
uudevlcies, novies decies
2,000
bis mlllies
20
vlcies
100,000
centies mlllies
21
semel et vicies, vlcies et semel, 1
,000,000
mlllies mlllies, decies cen-
vlcies semel *
ties mlllies
These answer the question quotiSns (6s)
; how often f
• * Not semel Vlcies, bis vicies, etc., because that would be, once twenty times = 20
times ; twice twenty times = 40 times ; this, however, does not hold for numerals be-
tween 10 and 20.
PRONOUNS. 55
REMARKS. — i. These adverbs, from quinquiSs on, have an older form
in -6ns ; quinquiSns. In totiens, so often, and quotiSns, how often, this
remained the more usual form in classical times.
2. The combination of an adverb with a distributive adjective was
much liked by the Romans : as bis blna for quaterna, etc. But the
normal forms are not unfrequent.
NOTE. — For the adverbs from undeciSs on, examples are very rare, and some are
cited only from the grammarians. So, when two forms are given, one is often due to
the grammarians ; thus quInquiSs deciSs, sexies deciSs, are cited only from Pwa-
CIAM . The order, too, of compound adverbs varies.
PRONOUNS.
99. Pronouns point out without describing.
NOTE.— The pronoun is not a word used instead of a noun. The noun says too
much, for all nouns (proper as well as common) are originally descriptive ; the pronoun
simply points out. The noun says too little, because it cannot express person, as ego,
/, tQ, thou ; it cannot express local appurtenance, as hie, this (here), ille, that (there).
A. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
100. I. Personal Pronouns of the First Person.
SUBSTANTIVE. POSSESSIVE.
rneus, -a, -urn, mine or my.
So.-N.
ego,
7,
G.
mei,
of me,
D.
mihl,
to, for me,
Ac.
mS,
me,
Ab.
me,
from, with, by me.
PL.-N.
nos,
we.
G.
nostri.
of us.
nostrum, noster, nostra, nostrum, our or ours.
D. nobls, to, for teg.
Ac. n5s, us,
Ab. nSbis, from, with, by us.
REMARKS. — i. The Voc. Sing. masc. of meus is ml, except when
meus is used with a substantive which does not change its form in the
Voc. ; thus, meus ocellus (PLAUT. ; possibly, however, appositional), but
ml anime.
2. Nostrum in the Gen. PI. is the form for the Partitive Genitive.
NOTES.— 1. Early Latin shows the following : Sg., N. eg5 ; G. mis ; D. ml, mihei
(inscr.) ; mib.6 (inscr.) ; Ac. m8d, rngme" ; Ab. mSd (m6m§ is doubtful) ; PI., N. Ac.
6n5s (in Carmen Arvale only) ; G. nostrdrum, nostraruin (for nostrum) ; D. Ab.
nobeis (inscr.).
2. In late Latin ml also serves for the Voc. Sing. fern, and Voc. PI. masc. Meum,
nostrum, in the Gen. PI. of the Possessives, are not unfrequent in early Latin.
3. The forms of meus, of tul and tuos, of sul and sues, very frequently suffer Syn-
izesis (727) in early Latin.
4. On the combination of these pronouns with -met and -pte see 103, N. 2, 3.
56 PRONOUN'S
101. II. Personal Pronouns of the Second Person.
SUBSTANTIVE. POSSESSIVE.
So.— N. V. tu, thou,
G. tul, of thee,
D. tibi, to, for thee, tuns (-os), -a, -urn (-om), thy or thine.
Ac. tS, thee,
Ab. tB, from, with, by thee.
PL.— N. vSs, ye or you,
G. vestrl, of you,
vestmm, vester (archaic voster), vestra, vestrum,
D. vobis, to, for you, your or yours.
Ac. vos, you,
Ab. vobis, from, with, by you.
NOTES.— 1. Early forms are : G. tls ; D. tibel (inscr.), tibg (inscr.) ; Ac. Ab. tSd,
t5tS ; Pi. G. vostrl, vostrorum, -arum.
2. Vestrum is for the Partitive Genitive.
3. Tuom and vostrom in the Gen. PL of the Possessives are rare and confined to
early X&tin.
4. On Synizesis see 100, N. 3. On combination with -met or -pte see 102, N. 2, 3.
III. Personal Pronouns of the Third Person.
102. The original personal pronoun of the third person,
together with its possessive, is used only as a reflexive in
Latin, and therefore lacks a Nominative. Its place is taken
in the oblique cases by the Determinative is (103).
DETERMINATIVE.
SUBSTANTIVE. POSSESSIVE.
SG. — N. [is, ea, id], he, she, it, supplied by the Genitive.
G. gins, of him, 6ius, his, hers, its.
etc.
PL.— N. [el, il, i ; eae, ea], they,
G. eorum, earum, eorum, of them, eSrum, earum, e5rum, their or theirs,
etc.
REFLEXIVE.
SUBSTANTIVE. POSSESSIVE.
So.-N.
G. sul, of him, her, it(setf), suus (-os), -a, -um (-om), his,
D. aibl, to, for, him(self), her(self), her(s), its (own).
Ac. s5, sSsS, him(self), her(self),
Ab. s6, 8§s6, from, with, by him(sey).
PL.— N.
G. sui, of them(selves), suus (-os), -a, -um (-om), tk&r
D. sib!, to, for them(selves), (awti), theirs.
Ac. s6, S6s6, them(selves),
Ab. s6, Sgs6, from, with, by themselves).
PRONOUNS. 57
NOTES.— 1. Inscriptions show sibei. The use of ggsS in classical prose is regulated
mainly by artistic reasons. Suom in Gen. PI. from suus is rare and early.
2. The enclitic -met may be added to all the forms of ego (except nostrum), to all
the forms of tu (except tu and vestrum), to sibi, sS, and some forms of suus ;
egomet, I myself. Instead of tumet, tute is found ; from which early poets formed
occasionally tutemet, tutimet. Met is also occasionally appended to forms of meus
(early) and tuus (late).
8. The enclitic -pte is joined very rarely to forms of the Personal Pronoun (m6pte,
PL., Men. 1059) ; more often to the Abl. Sing, of the Possessives ; it is especially com-
mon with su5 ; suopte ingenio, by his own genius.
4. From noster and vester and also from ctiius, whose ? are formed the Gentile
adjectives of one ending : nostras, of our country ; vestras, of your country ; cuias,
of whose country ? G. nostratis, vestratis, cuiatis.
103. B. DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS.
i. is, he, that.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
N. is, ea, id, il, el, I, eae, ea,
G. eius, eius, Sins, eorum, earum, eorum,
I). .el, el, el, iis, eis, Is,
Ac. eum, earn, id, cos, eas, ea,
Ab. co, ea, eo. iis, els, is.
NOTE. — The following variations in the forms are found : N. it for id (post-cl.) ;
G. ellus (inscr.), eius (early poetry) ; D. elel (inscr.), SI, el (early poetry), eae
(f .) ; Ac. em, im (early), for earn ; PL N. els, eels, iels, iel (early and rare), for el ;
the usual classical form is il ; G. eum (inscr.) for e5rum ; D. eieis, 6elS, iels (inscr.),
thus (early poetry and rare) ; the usual classical form is iis. The early forms sum,
sana, sos, sas, for earn, earn, eos, eas, are cited by FESTUS. Ace. and Abl. Sing, and
Gen. PL often suffer Synizesis in early poetry.
2. Idem (is + dem), the same.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
N. Idem, eadem, idem, Idem, eidem, ildem, eaedem, eadem,
G. eiusdem, eiusdem, elusdem, eorundem, earundem, eorundem,
D. eidem, eidem, eidem, Isdem, elsdem, ilsdem,
Ac. eundem, eandem, idem, eosdem, easdem, eadem,
Abl. eodem, eadem, eodem, Isdem, elsdem, ilsdem.
NOTE.— Variations in form : N. eidem, isdem (inscr., early) for Idem ; D. Idem
(inscr.) for eidem; PL N. Idem (more usual in poetry), elsdem, Isdem (inscr.);
D. Ab. ilsdem (rare), elsdem (uncommon in classical prose). Synizesis is common.
3. ipse (perhaps is + pse), he, self.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
N. ipse, ipsa, ipsum, ipsl, ipsae, ipsa,
6. ipsius, ipslns, ipslus, ipsorum, ipsarum, ipsorum.
B. (ipsl,]) ipsl, ipsl, ipsis, ipsis, ipsls,
Ac. ipsum, ipsam, ipsum, ipsos, ipsas, ipsa,
Ab. ipso, ipsa. ipso. ipsis, ipsis, ipsis.
58 PRONOUN'S.
NOTES.— 1. In the earlier time the first part of ipge was also declined, thus : N.
eapse ; Ac. eumpse, eampse ; Ab. eopse, eapse- Other forms are doubtful.
2. For ipse the form ipsus was very commonly employed in early Latin, but fades
out with TERENCE, and later is only sporadic.
3. Inflectional variations are : D. ips5, ipsae (late) ; PL N. ipsei (inscr.). The few
other forms are uncertain. Ipslus is dissyllabic twice in TERENCE.
4. PLAUTUS shows ipsissimus (comp. Gr. avrdraTos), and hi late Latin ipsimua
and ipsima are found. A post-Ciceronian colloquialism was isse, issa.
5. Ipse combines with -met : ipsemet and ipsimet (N. PL), both rare.
104. Q. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
I. Demonstrative Pronoun for the First Person.
haec, these,
horum,
his,
haec,
his.
NOTES.— 1. The full forms of hie in -ce are still found in limited numbers hi early
Latin ; G. hoiusce (in the phrase huiusce modi, the form is common hi the classical
period and later) ; D. holce (inscr.) ; PL N. helsce, hlsce (not uncommon) ; G.
horunce (rare) ; D., Ab. hisce (in PLAUT. andTBB. usually before vowels); Ac. hosce,
hasce (not uncommon ; occasionally hi Cic.).
2. Other variations in form are : G. huius and huius (in early poetry for metrical
reasons); D. hae (rare and early); Ac. hone ; PL N. hel, hels for hi, haec for hae (hi
PLAUT. and TER. regularly before vowels or h, occasionally before consonants ; occa-
sionally also hi classical times and later) ; G. h5rnnc, harunc (early). PL N. hie
for hi and D. Ab. hlbus for his are doubtful.
3. HIc combines with -ne. Usually -ne was appended to hlce, etc., and the e
weakened to i. Sometimes -ne is added directly to the regular forms. The examples
are frequent hi early Latin, but occur also in Cic. and later writers : hzcine, haecine,
hocine, huicine, huncine, hancine, hocine, hacine, haecine (N. PL fem.),
haecine (N. PL neut.), hiscine, hoscine, hascine ; also hlcne, haecne, hocne,
huiusne, huncne, hancne, hocne, hacne, haecne, hosne, hasne.
II. Demonstrative Pronoun for the Second Person.
iste, that.
hie,
this.
SG.— N.
hie,
haec,
hoc,
PL.— hi,
hae,
G.
huius,
huius,
huius,
horum,
haru
D.
hulc,
hulc,
hulc,
his,
his,
Ac.
hunc,
hanc,
hoc,
hos,
has,
Abl.
hflc,
hae,
hoc.
his,
his,
So,
.— N.
iste,
ista,
istud,
PL.— istl,
istae,
ista,
G.
istlus,
istlus,
istlus,
istorum,
istarum,
istorum,
D.
istl,
istl,
istl,
istis,
istis,
istis,
Ac.
istum,
istam,
istud,
istos,
istas,
ista,
Abl.
isto,
ista,
istO.
istis,
istis,
istis.
NOTES.— 1. The Dat. Sing, shows ist5 in late and istae in early Latin.
2. Iste combines with -ce. In a very few cases (three times in early, once in late
Latin) this -ce is retained unchanged, but usually it is shortened to -c. The following
forma occur, all except istuc (more common than istud hi classical Latin) and istaec
PRONOUNS.
59
(neuter, occasionally in Cic., Ep. and later), being wholly confined to early and late
Latin. N. istic, istaec, istuc (istoc, once) ; D. istic ; Ac. istunc, istanc ; Ab.
istoc, istac. Pi. N. istaec (f.), istaec (n.).
3. In a few cases in PLAUT. and TER. -ne is appended to istice, etc., the preceding
e being weakened to i : istuciue, istocine, istacine, ist5scin'.
III. Demonstrative Pronoun for the Third Person.
SG.— N. ille,
ilia,
illud,
PL.— illl,
illae,
ilia,
G. illius,
illius,
illius,
illorum,
illarum,
illorum,
D. mi,
mi,
mi,
illls,
illis,
illls,
Ac. ilium,
illam,
illud,
illos,
illas,
ilia,
Ab. illo,
ilia,
il!5.
illls,
illls,
mis.
NOTES.— 1. The older forms from stem olio- occur on early inscriptions, in laws, and
In the poets (except PLAUT. and TER.), even to a very late period, as follows : N. ollus,
-e (early) ; D. oil! ; PI. N. olll, olla ; G. ollom, ollarum (early) ; D. olleis, ollls ;
Ac. ollSs (early).
2. Inscriptions show illut occasionally for illud. Other rare forms are : G. illl
(doubtful); D. illae ; PI. N. illel. Illius is often dissyllabic in early Latin.
3. Hie often combines with -ce, which is, however, usually shortened to -c :
illiusce, illace, illoce, illosce, illasce, illlsce, all in early Latin ; shortened forms :
N. illic, illaec, illuc ; D. illic ; Ac. illunc, illanc ; Ab. illoc, iliac ; Pi. N.
illaec (f.), illaec (n.), all with rare exceptions confined to PLAUTUS and TERENCE.
4. A few cases of combination with -ne : illicine, illancine occur in PLAUTUS and
TERENCE.
105. D. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
qul (Substantive and Adjective), who.
SG.— N.
qul,
quae,
quod,
PL. — qul,
quae,
quae,
G.
cuius,
cuius,
cuius,
quorum,
quarum,
quorum,
D.
cul,
cul,
cul,
quibus,
quibus,
quibus,
Ac.
quern,
quam,
quod,
quos,
quas,
quae,
Ab.
quo,
qua,
quo.
quibus,
quibus,
quibus.
General Relatives are :
Substantive, quisquis, whoever,
Adjective. (qulqui, quaequae,
qulcunque, quaecunqne,
quidquid, quicquid,
quodquod),
quodcunque,
whatever.
whosoever.
whichever.
NOTES.— 1. Archaic and legal are quis and quid as relatives.
2. The prevalent form of Gen. on inscriptions of the Republican period and in early
Latin is quoius ; quius, cuiius, and other variations are also found. Other archaic
forms are : D., quoi. D. PL, queis. D. PI. quis is common in the poets at all
periods ; and also in prose writers ; but not cited from CAESAR, and only from the
letters of CICERO.
3. The Abl. Sing, qul for all genders is the prevalent form in early times, and in
combination with cum is preferred to quo, qua by CICERO.
4. Quisquis is occasionally used as an adjective, but not in classical Latin. Occa-
sionally, also, but rarely in CICERO, it is used for quisque, quidque. The Nom. Sing.
of the adjective quiqul, etc., probably does not occur. In the other cases the forms are
60 PRONOUNS.
the same as those of quisquis and can be distinguished only by the usage. In combi-
nation with modi we find culcul in Gen. sometimes in CICEKO. In the Plural the
only form found is quibusquibus. (Liv. XLI., 8, 10.)
5. In quicumque the -cumque is often separated by tmesis. The only variations
in form are quelquomque, quescumque in early Latin, and occasionally qulscumque
for quibuscumque (several times in CICERO).
106. E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
Substantive. quis 1 who ? quid ? what f
Adjective. qul ? quae ? quod 1 which ?
Subst. and Adj. uter ? utra 1 utrum 1 who, which of two f
SG. N. quis ? quid ? who ? what ? POSSESSIVE.
G. cuius * cuius 1 whose? ciiius, cuia, cuium, whose ?
D. cul ? cul? to, for whom ?
Ac. quern 1 quid ? whom ? what ?
Ab. qu5 1 qu5 1 from, with, ~by whom or what ?
The plural of the substantive interrogative pronoun and both num-
bers of the adjective interrogative pronoun coincide with the forms of
the relative qul, quae, quod, who, which.
Strengthened Interrogatives.
Substantive, quisnam ? ivfio, pray f quidnam 7 what, pray t
ecquis 1 is there any one who ? ecquid ?
Adjective, quinara1? quaenam1? quodnam ? which, pray f
ecqull ecqua? (ecquae)? ecquod?
REMARK. — In the poets qul is sometimes found as a substantive
for quis in independent sentences. In dependent sentences the use
always fluctuates. A difference in meaning can hardly be made other
than that qul is generally used in much the same sense as qualis. On
the other hand, quis is often used as an adjective for qul ; usually, how-
ever, the substantive which follows is best looked upon as in apposi-
tion. In the classical period qul is the normal form for the adjective
in dependent questions.
NOTES. — 1. Inscriptions show here and there quit and quot for quid and quod.
Quid is sometimes used for quod, but usually in the phrase quid nSmen tibi est and
only in early Latin. Sometimes quae seems to be used as a substantive, but another
explanation is always possible.
2. In the oblique cases the same variations occur as in the oblique cases of the rela-
tive. The Abl. qul means how ?
3. For the declension of uter see 76.
4. The possessive cuius (quoins), -a, -um was used both as relative and as interroga-
PRONOUNS. 6 1
tive. It IB frequent in PLATJT. and TEE., but rare in other authors. Besides the Nom.
the only forms found are Ac. quoium, quoiam ; Ab. quoia ; PI. N. quoiae, and,
perhaps, G. PI. quoium.
5. Quisnam is sometimes used as an adjective for qninam and quinam occasion-
ally for quisnam as a substantive. The -nam may be separated by tmesis. Ecquis
and ecqul are not common, and are subject to the same fluctuations as quis and qul.
Ecquis combines with -nam to form ecquisnam and a few other occasional forme,
as : ecquaenam, ecqoidnam, ecquodnam, ecquonam, ecquosiiam.
107. F. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
I. Substantive, aliquis, aliqua (rare), aliquid, ) somebody, some one
quis, qua, quid, f or other.
Adjective. aliqui, aliqua, aliquod, )
' I some, any.
qui, quae, qua, quod, )
REMARK. — The common rule is that quis and qul occur properly only
after si, nisi, n6, num, or after a relative ; otherwise aliquis, aliqui.
NOTES.— 1. Aliquis and quis are not unfrequently need as adjectives instead of
aliqui, qul, but rarely in early Latin. Occasionally (not hi early Latin) aliqui is used
as a substantive. Qul is also so used, but only after si, sin, sive, nS.
The use of quid and aliquid for quod and aliquod, and of aliquod for aliquid,
is very rare and late.
2. Besides the variations in form mentioned under the relative and interrogative, the
indefinitive quis shows quSs as an early form for qul (N. PL), and in PL Nom. Ace.
neut. quae and qua in equally good usage. Aliquis shows in Abl. Sing, aliqui (rare
and early), in the PL Nom. Ace. neut. always aliqua, and not unfrequently in post-
classical Latin aliquis for aliquibus.
2. quldam, quaedam, quiddam (and quoddam), a certain, certain one.
REMARK. — Quldam, quaedam occur both as substantives and adjec-
tives, but quiddam is always substantive, quoddam always adjective.
The Plural is rare in early Latin (never in PLAUTUS).
3. quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam (and quodpiam), some one, some.
quisquam, , quicquam, any one (at all). No plural.
NOTES. — 1. quispiam, quaepiam are rare as adjectives. In the neuter, quippiam
and quoppiam occur rarely. The comic poets do not use the Plural, and it is rare
elsewhere.
2. Quisquam is seldom used as an adjective, except with designations of persons ;
seriptor quisquam, any writer (at all), Gallus quisquam, any Gaul (at all). The
corresponding adjective is ullus. The use of quisquam as a feminine is only in early
Latin. Quidquam is a poor spelling for quicquam. In Abl. Sing, qulquam occurs
occasionally. In Sing. Gen. Dat. Ace. frequently, and in Plural always, forms of ullus
were used.
62 CORRELATIVES.
J
quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet (and quodlibet), ) you like,
NOTE.— Quivls, quaevis, quilibet (archaic -lubet), quaelibet may be used either
as substantives or adjectives, but quidvis, quidlibet are substantives only, quodvls,
quodlibet are adjectives only. Peculiar forms of quivls are G. quoivis in quoivls-
modi (PLAUT.) ; D., quovls (late) ; Ab., qulvls (PLAUT., TER.), and the compounds
cuiusvlscumque (LUCR. in., 388) and qu5viscumque (MART, xrv., 2, 1). Quilibet
may be separated by tmesis into qul and libet (SAT.T.., Cat. 5, 4).
5. quisque, quaeque, quidque and quodque, each one.
unusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquidque and unumquodqne, each one
severally.
NOTE.— Quisque occurs occasionally in early Latin as a feminine, and with its forms
is not unfrequently found in early and late Latin for quisquis, or quicumque. Quid-
que is substantive, quodque adjective. In the Abl. Sing, qulque occurs occasionally.
The Plural is regular, but rare until post-classical times. In Nom. PI. quaeque is either
fern, or neuter.
108. The declension of the pronominal adjectives has been
given in 76. They are :
ullus, -a, -urn, any ; nullus, -a, -urn, no one, not one. The correspond-
ing substantives are nemo (76) and nihil, the latter of which forms
only nibili (Gen.) and nihilo (Abl.), and those only in certain combina-
tions.
nonnullus, -a, -urn, some, many a, declined like nullus.
alms, -a, -ud, another; the Possessive of alius is alienus.
alter, -era, -erum, the other, one (of two).
neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither of two.
alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other of the two.
uterque, utraque. utrumque, each of two, either, ambo, -ae, -o, both.
utervis, utravis, utrumvls. ) , . ,
. .... . .... ... ' > whichever you please of the two.
nterlibet, utraiibet, utrumlibet, \
CORRELATIVES.
109. I. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
INTERROGATIVES. DEMONSTRATIVES. RELATIVES.
quis 1 who ? is, that, qul, who.
qualis 1 of what talis, such (of that qualis, as (of which
kind ? kind), kind).
quantus ? how much ? tantus, so much, quantus, as much.
quot 1 how many ? tot, so many, quot, as many.
COREELATIVE8. 63
110. II. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADVERBS.
1. Pronominal adverbs of place.
ubl ? where ? ibl, there. ubi, where.
qua ? where, hie, hae, here, this way. qua, where, which
which way 9 way.
istlc, istac, there, that way.
illic, iliac, there, yonder way.
unde ? whence ? inde, thence. unde, whence.
hinc, ftewee.
istinc, thence.
iliinc, thence, from yonder.
qu5? whither 9 eo, thither. quo, whither.
hue, (hoc,) hither.
istuc, (istoc,) thither.
illuc, (illoc,) thither, yonder.
2. Pronominal adverbs of £me.
quando ] wfte/i F turn, ^e?i. qnandS, when.
tune, «£ ^Aa^ it/we, quom, cum.
nunc, wow.
quotiSns ? Aow o/^e7i F totiens, 50 o/ferc. quotiens, as o/<en as.
3. Pronominal adverbs of manner.
quomodo ? qul ? how ? ita, sic, so, thus. ut, uti, as.
quam.1? how much f tarn, so much. quam, as.
111. III. COMPOUNDS OF THE RELATIVE FORMS.
1. The relative pronouns become indefinite by prefixing
all-:
aliquantus, somewhat great; aliquot, several, some; alicubl, some-
where ; alicunde, from somewhere ; aliquando, at some time.
2. The simple relatives become universal by doubling
themselves, or by suffixing -cunque (-cumque), sometimes -que :
quantuscunque, however great ; qualiscunque, of whatever kind; quot-
quot, however many ; ublcunque, wheresoever ; quandocuuque, quand8que,
whenever ; quotiescunque, however often ; utut, in whatever way ; utcun-
qoe, howsoever ; quamquam, however, although.
3. Many of the relatives are further compounded with -vis
or -libet :
quantuslibet, quantusvis, as great as you please ; ubivls, where you
will ; quamvls, as you please, though.
64 THE VERB.
THE VERB.
112. The inflection given to the verbal stem is called Con-
jugation, and expresses :
1. Person and Number ;
2. Voice — Active or Passive.
The Active Voice denotes that the action proceeds from the
subject : amo, / love.
The Passive Voice denotes that the subject receives the
action of the Verb : amor, / am loved.
3. Tense — Present, Imperfect, Future,
Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.
The Present, amo, / love ; Future, amabo, / shall love ;
Pure Perfect, amavi, / have loved ; Future Perfect, amavero,
I shall have loved, are called Principal Tenses.
The Imperfect, amabam, I was loving ; Historical Perfect,
amavl, I loved ; Pluperfect, amaveram, / had loved, are called
Historical Tenses.
REMARK. — The Pure and Historical Perfects are identical in form.
4. Mood — Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.
The Indicative Mood is the mood of the fact : amo, / love.
The Subjunctive Mood is the mood of the idea : amem,
may I love, I may love ; amet, may he love, he may love j si
amet, if he should love.
The Imperative Mood is the mood of command : ama, love
thou !
For further distinctions see Syntax.
5. These forms belong to the Finite Verb. Outside of the
Finite Verb, and akin to the noun, are the verbal forms called
Infinitive, Supine, Participle, Gerund.
The Infinitive active and the Supine are related to the noun, the
former being originally a Dative or Locative and the Supine showing
two cases, Accusative and Ablative.
No adequate uniform translation can be given, but for the general
meaning see paradigms.
113. A large number of Verbs have the passive form but
THE VERB. 65
are active in meaning : hortor, / exhort. These are called
deponent (from deponere, to lay aside).
114. The Inflection of the Finite Verb is effected by the
addition of personal endings to the verb stems.
1. The personal endings are mostly pronominal forms, which serve
to indicate not only person, but also number and voice. They are :
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
SG. — i. -m (or a vowel, coalescing with -r.
the characteristic ending) ; Pf . I,
2. -s; Pf. -s-tl; Impv. -t5(d) or want- -riser -re; Impv. -re or -tor.
ing,
3. -t ; Impv. t3(d), -tur ; Impv. -tor.
PL. — i. -mus, -mur.
2. -tis ; Pf . -s-tis- ; Impv. -te or -tote, -mini.
3. -rit ; Pf . Srunt or Sre ; Impv. -nto(d), -ntur ; Impv. -ntor.
2. The personal endings are added directly to the stem in the Pres-
ent Indicative and Imperative only, except in the third conjugation, in
some forms of the Future Indicative. In the other tenses certain
modifications occur in the stem, or tense signs are employed :
(a) In the Present Subjunctive final a of .the stem is changed to g (e) ;
final 6 to ea (ea) ; final I to ia (ia) ; final e to a (a). In the Future In-
dicative final e is changed to a or 6 (e) ; final i to ia (i6, ie).
(b) The tense signs are : for the Imperfect Indicative, ba (ba) ; for
the Imperfect Subjunctive, rS (re) ; for the Future Indicative in a and S
verbs bl (b, bu) ; for the Perfect Indicative, I (i) ; for the Perfect Sub-
junctive, -er! ; for the Pluperfect Indicative, era (era) ; for the Pluper-
fect Subjunctive, issS (isse) ; for the Future Perfect Indicative, erl (er).
3. The stem itself is variously modified ; either by change of vowel
or by addition of suffixes, and appears in the following forms :
(a) The Present stem ; being the stem of the Present, Imperfect, and
Future tenses. These forms are called the Present System.
(b) The Perfect stem ; being the stem of the Perfect, Pluperfect, and
Future Perfect tenses. These forms are called the Perfect System.
(c) The Supine* stem ; being the stem of the Future Active and Per-
fect Passive Participles and of the Supine. These forms are called the
Supine System,
NOTE.— For details as to the formation of these stems, see 132 ff.
* This designation is retained because it is an established terminus technlcus ; as a
matter of fact the Supine stem is not the stem of the Participles.
5
66
THE VERB.
115. i- The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect tenses in the
Passive are formed by the combination of the Perfect Passive Parti-
ciple with forms of the verb sum, / am.
2. The Future Passive Infinitive is formed by the combination of
the Supine with the Present Passive Infinitive of e5, 1 go.
3. The infinite parts of the verb are formed by the addition of the
following endings to the stems :
ACTIVE.
INFINITIVE. Pr. -re,
Pf. -isse,
Fut. -turum (-a, -am), esse,
PARTICIPLES. Pr. -nfl (G. -ntis),
Pf.
Fut. -torus (-a, -urn).
GERUND. GERUNDIVE.
•ndl (-d5, -dum, -do). -ndus (-a, -am).
PASSIVE.
n,L
-tas (-ta, -tarn), esse.
-turn iri.
•tas (-ta, -torn).
SUPINE.
-torn ; -tu
116.
So. — i. sum,
2. es,
3. est,
PL. — i. sumus,
2. estis,
3. sunt,
So. — i. eram,
2. eras,
3. erat,
PL. — i. eramus,
2. eratis,
3. erant,
So. — i. er5,
2. eris,
3- erit,
PL. — i. erimus,
2. eritis,
3. erunt,
THE VERB sum, I am.
(Pres. stem es-, Perf. stem fa-)
IVE. SUBJUNCTTVE.
PRESENT.
/ am, sim, / be,
thou art, sis, tTiou be,
he, she, it is. sit, he, she, it be.
we are,
you are,
they are.
slmus,
sltis,
sint,
we be,
you be,
they be.
IMPERFECT.
/ was, essem,
thou wast, esses,
he was. esset,
I were
thou wert
he were
(forem),
(fores),
(foret).
we were,
you were,
they were,
essemus,
essetis,
essent,
we were,
you were,
they were
Iforent)-
I shall be,
thou wilt be,
FUTURE,
he will be.
we shall be,
you will be,
they mil be.
THE VERB. 67
PERFECT.
So. — i. fill, I have been, I fuerim, I have, may have, teen,
was,
2. fuistX, thou hast been, fueris, thou have, mayest have,
thou wast, been,
3. fait, he has been, he fuerit, he have, may have, been.
was.
PL. — i. fuimus, we have been, we fuerlmus, we have, may have, been,
were,
2. fuistis, you have been, fueritis, you have, may have,
you were, been,
3. fuerunt, fuere, they have fuerint, they have, may have,
been, they were. been.
PLUPERFECT.
So. — i. fueram, 1 had been, fuissem, I had, might have, been,
2. fueras, thou hadst been, fuissSs, thou hadst, mightst have,
3. fuerat, he had been. fuisset, he had, might have, been.
PL. — i. fueramus, we had been, fuissgmus, we had, might have, been,
2. fueratis, you had been, fuissStis, you had, might have,
been,
3. fuerant, they had been. fuissent, they had, might have,
been.
FUTURE PERFECT.
SG. — i. fuero, I shall have been,
2. fueris, thou wilt have been,
3. fuerit, he will have been.
PL. — i. fuerlmus, we shall have been,
2. fueritis, you will have been,
3. fuerint, they will have been.
IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE.
PRESENT. FUTURE. PRES. esse, to be,
So. — i. , , PERF. fuisse, to have been,
2. es, be thou, est5, thou shalt be, FUT. futurum (-am, -urn) esse
3- , estB, he shall be. (fore), to be about to
be.
PL.— I. , PARTICIPLE.
2. este, be ye, est5te, you shall be,
3- , suntS, they shall be. PUT. futurus, -a, -um, about
to be.
68 THE VERB.
NOTES.— 1. Early forms are :
(a) In the Pres. Ind. es for es ; regularly in PLAUTUS and TERENCE, but the
quantity of the vowel is disputed.
(6) In the Pres. Subjv. siem, sie"s, siet, sient ; regular in inscriptions until the
first century B. C. and common hi early poets chiefly for metrical reasons ; side by
side with this occur fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant (also LUCK, iv., 637, VERG. x., 108, LIT.
xxv., 12, 6), which are taken up again by very late poete. Sit is also common.
(c) In the Impf . Subjv. the forms forem, fores, foret, forent were probably in very
early times equivalent to futurus essem, etc. ; and occasionally this force seems to be
still present in the later period, especially in SALLUST ; usually, however, they are
equivalent to essem, essSs, esset, essent ; in the Inf. fore always remained the
equivalent of fatunim esse.
(d) In all the Perfect forms the original length was fa-, which is still found occa-
sionally in early Latin.
(«) Early and principally legal are the rare forms escit, escet, esit, for erit ;
-essint for erunt.
2. The Pres. Part, ie found only in the compounds ; ab-sSns, absent, and prae-
s5ns, present.
117. COMPOUNDS OF sum, / am.
ab-sum, J am away, absent. Pf . ob-sum, / am against, I hurt. Pf .
(abful) aful. obfui or offal,
ad-sum, I am present. Pf. afful. pos-sum, I am able.
dS-sum, / am wanting. prae-sum, / am over, I superintend.
In-sum, lam in. pro-sum, I am for, I profit.
inter-sum, / am between. sub-sum, / am under. No Pf .
super-sum, / am, or remain, over.
These are all inflected like sum ; but prosum and possum
require special treatment by reason of their composition.
Prosum, I profit.
118. In the forms of prosum, prod- is used before vowels.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT. pr5-sum, prod-es, prod-est, pr5-sim,
pro-sumus, prod-estis, pro-sunt,
IMPERFECT. prSd-eram, prod-essem,
FUTURE. prod-er5,
PERFECT. prO-fuI, pr5-fuerim,
PLUPERFECT. pr5-fueram, pr5-fuissem.
Fur. PERF. pr6-fuer5,
INFmnTVE. PHES. prod-esse ; FUT. pr5-futurum esse (-fore) ; PERF. pro-fuisse.
Possum, / am able, I can.
119. Possum is compounded of pot (potis, pote) and sum ;
t becomes s before s ; in the perfect forms, f (pot-fui) is lost.
THE VERB. 69
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
SG. — i. pos-sum, I am able, can, pos-sim, I be able.
2. pot-es, pos-sls,
3. pot-est. pos-sit.
PL. — i. pos-sumus, pos-simus,
2. pot-estis, pos-sitis,
3. pos-sunt. pos-sint.
IMPERFECT.
So. — i. pot-eram, I was able, could, pos-sem, I were, might be, able.
2. pot-eras, pos-sSs,
3. pot-erat. pos-set.
PL. — i. pot-eramus, pos-semus,
2. pot-eratis, pos-s5tis,
3. pot-erant. pos-sent.
FUTURE.
SG. — i. pot-er5, 1 shall be able.
2. pot-eris,
3. pot-erit.
PL. — i. pot-erimus,
2. pot-eritis,
3. pot-erunt.
PERFECT.
SG. — i. pot-m, I have been able, pot-uerim, / have, may have, been
able.
2. pot-uistl, pot-ueris,
3. pot-uit. pot-uerit.
PL. — i. pot-uimus, pot-uerlmus,
2. pot-uistis, pot-uerltis,
3. pot-u5mnt. pot-uerint.
PLUPERFECT .
SG. — i. pot-ueram, / had been able. pot-uissem, / had, might have,
been able.
2. pot-ueras, pot-uiss5s,
3. pot-uerat. pot-uisset.
PL. — i. pot-ueramus, pot-uissgnras,
2. pot-ueratis, pot-uiss6tis,
3. pot-uerant. pot-uissent.
REGULAR VERBS.
:
Yc
IBRASVj]
FUTURE PERFECT. \y- V
So. — i. pot-uer8, 1 shall have been PL. — i. pot-uerlmua, \?
2. pot-uerls, [able, 2. pot-ueritis, ^**J^*^]
3. pot-uerit. 3- pot-uerint.
INFINITIVE. PRES., posse, to be able. PERP., potuisse, to have been able.
NOTES.— 1. In the early Latin the fusion of the two parts of the compound has not
fully taken place ; we accordingly find not unfrequently : potis sum, potis es, potis
est, potis sunt ; potis siem, potis sis, potis sit, potis sint ; potis erat ; pote
fuisset ; and sometimes (even in classical and Augustan poete) potis and pote alone,
the copula being omitted. Partial fusion is seen in Inf. pot-esse, potisse ; Subjv.
poti-sit (inscr.), poti-sset.
2. Occasional passive forms (followed by a passive infinitive) are found in early
Latin (not in PLAUT. or TER.) and LUCRETIUS : potestur, possStur, possitur, poter-
atur . Poterint for poterunt is doubtful.
REGULAR VERBS.
SYSTEMS OF CONJUGATION.
120. i. There are two Systems of Conjugation, the The-
matic and the Non-thematic (132). The Non-thematic is
confined to a small class. The Thematic System comprises
four Conjugations, distinguished by the vowel characteristics
of the present stem, a, 6, 8, i, which may be found by drop-
ping -re from the Present Infinitive Active. The consonant
preceding the short vowel stem-characteristic is called the
consonant stem-characteristic.
2. From the Present stem, as seen in the Present Indica-
tive and Present Infinitive active ; from the Perfect stem,
as seen in the Perfect Indicative active ; and from the
Supine stem, can be derived all the forms of the verb.
These tenses are accordingly called the Principal Parts;
and in the regular verbs appear in the four conjugations as
follows :
PRES. IND.
PRES. INF.
PERF. IND.
SUPINE.
I. am-o,
ama-re,
ama-vi,
ama-ttun,
to love.
II. dSle-5,
dele-re,
deis-vi,
dels- turn,
to blot out.
mone-o,
mone-re,
mon-ui,
mon-i-tum,
to remind.
III. em-5,
erne-re,
e"m-i,
em(p)-tum,
to buy.
statu-o,
statue-re,
statu-I,
statu-tum,
to settle.
scrlb-o,
scribe-re,
scrip-si,
scrip-turn,
to write.
capi-o.
cape-re,
cgp-I,
cap-turn,
to take.
IV. audi-5,
audl-re,
audl-vl,
audl-tum,
to hear.
REGULAR VERBS. Jl
Rules for forming the Tenses.
121. r- The Present System. From the Present stem as obtained
by dropping -re of the Pres. Inf. Active, form
a. Pres. Subjv. by changing final a to e, 6 to ea, e to a (or -ia), i to ia,
and adding -m for active, -r for passive ; Pres. Impv. Passive by adding
-re; Fut. Impv. by adding -to for Active and -tor for the Passive ; Pres.
Part, by adding -ns and lengthening preceding vowel ; Gerund by
adding -ndl after shortening a and S, changing I to ie, and in a few verbs
e to ie. Pres. Impv. Active is the same as the stem ; Pres. Indie. Passive
may be formed from Pres. Indie. Act. by adding -r (after shortening 5).
b. Impf. Indie, by adding -bam for active and -bar for passive to the
stem in the first and second conjugations ; to the lengthened stem in
the third and fourth (e to S or is, I to is) ; Impf. Subjv. by adding the
endings -rem and -rer, or by adding -m and -r respectively to the Pres.
Inf. Active.
c. Future, by adding -bo and -bor to the stem in the first and second
conjugations ; -m and -r in the third and in the fourth (e being changed
to a (ia) ; I, to ia).
2. The Perfect System. From the Perfect stem as obtained by drop-
ping final I of the Perfect, form
a. Perf. /Subjv. Active by adding -erim ; Perf. Inf. Active by adding
-isse.
b. Plupf. Indie. Active by adding -eram ; Plup. Subjv. Active by
adding -issem.
c. Fut. Perf. Active by adding -er5.
3. The Supine System. From the Supine stem as obtained by drop-
ping final -m of the Supine, form
a. Perf. Part. Passive by adding -s.
b. Fut. Part. Active by adding -rus (preceding u being lengthened
tou).
c. The Compound Tenses in the Passive and the Periphrastic forms
by combining these Participles with forms of ease, to be.
REMARK. — JSuphonic changes in the consonant stem-characteristic.
Characteristic b before s and t becomes p ; g and qu before t become
c ; c, g, qu, with s, become x ; t and d before s are assimilated, and
then sometimes dropped. See further, 9.
scrlb-o, scrip-si, scrip-turn ; lego, lec-tum ; coqu-o, coc-tum ; dic-o, clixi
(die-si) ; inng-o, iunx-i (iung-sl) ; coqu-o, coxi (coqu-sl) ; ed-o, e-sum (ed-
sum) ; ced-o, ces-si (cSd-si) ; mitt-6, mi-si (mit-sl), mis-sum (mit-sum).
EEGULAK VEEBS.
122. First Conjugation.
CONJUGATION OF amare, to lorn.
PRIN. PARTS : am-o, ama-re, ama-vl, ama-tum.
ACTIVE.
PRESENT.
IMPERFECT.
INDICATIVE.
Am loving, do love, love.
SG. — i. am-5,
2. ama-s,
3. ama-t,
PL. — i. amS-mus,
2. ama-tis,
3. ama-nt,
Was loving, loved.
SG. — i. ama-ba-m,
2. ama-ba-s,
3. ama-ba-t,
PL. — i. ama-ba-nuis,
2. ainfi-ba-tis,
3. ama-ba-nt,
PTITUBE.
Shall be loving, shall love.
So. — i. ama-b-5,
2. ama-bi-s,
3. amS-bi-t,
PL. — i. aina-bi-mus,
2. ama-bi-tis,
3. ama-bu-nt.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Be loving, may love.
ame-m,
amC-s.
anic-t.
ame-mos,
ame-tis,
ame-nt.
Were loving, might love.
ama-re-m,
ama-rg-s,
ama-re-t.
ama-rg-mus,
ama-rS-tis,
ama-re-nt.
PERFECT.
Have loved, did love.
SG. — i. ama-v-I,
2. ama-v-isti,
3. ama-v-it,
PL. — i. ama-v-imus,
2. ania-v-istis,
3. ama-v-Srunt (-6re),
Have, may have, loved,
amS-v-eri-m,
amu-v-erl-s,
ama-v-eri-t.
ama-v-erl-mus,
ama-v-erf-tis,
ama-v-eri-nt.
REGULAR VERBS.
First Conjugation.
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PLUPERFECT.
Had loved.
SG. — i. ama-v-era-m,
2. amS-v-era-s,
3. ama-v-era-t,
PL. — i. ama-v-era-mus,
2. amS-v-era-tis,
3. ama-v-era-nt,
FUTURE PERFECT.
Shall have loved.
SG. — i. ama-v-er-5,
2. ama-v-erl-s,
3. ama-v-eri-t.
PL. — i. ama-v-erl-mus,
2. ama-v-eri-tis,
3. ama-v-eri-nt.
IMPERATIVE.
PRESENT.
SG.— i. , ,
2, ama, love thou, ama-t5,
3. . amS-tO,
PL.— i. ,
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Had, might have, loved.
amS-v-isse-m,
aina-v-isse-s,
ama-v-isse-t.
ama-v-issS-mus,
ama-v-issS-tis,
ama-v-isse-nt.
FUTTTRE.
thou shalt love,
he shall love.
2. ama-te, love ye, ama-t5te, ye shall love.
3. , ama-ntO, they shall love.
ESI PUNITIVE.
PRES. ama-re, to love.
PERF. amS-v-isse, to have loved.
FUT. amfi-tur-um, -am, -um esse, to be about to love.
GERUND. SUPINE.
N. [ama-re], loving.
G. ama-nd-i, of loving.
D. ama-nd-8, to loving.
Ac. [ama-re], Ac. ama-tum, to love.
(ad) ama-nd-um, loving, to love.
Ab. ama-nd-6, by loving. Ab. ama-tii, to love, in the loving.
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT. N. ama-n-s (G. ama-nt-is), loving.
FUTURE. amS-tur-us, -a, -urn, being about to love.
74
REGULAK VERBS.
First Conjugation.
PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
Am loved.
SG. — i. amo-r,
2. ama-ris (-re),
3. ama-tur,
PL. — I. aUKl-mur,
2. ama-minl,
3. ama-ntur,
PRESENT.
IMPERFECT.
Was loved.
So. — i. ama-ba-r,
2. {iinil-ba-ris (-re),
3. amS-ba-tur,
PL. — i. ama-ba-mur,
2. ama-ba-mini,
3. anuT-ba-ntur,
Shall be loved.
SG. — i. ama-bo-r,
2. ama-be-ris (-re),
3. amS-bi-tur.
PL. — i. ama-bi-mur,
2. ama-bi-minl,
3. amS-bu-ntur.
FUTURE.
PERFECT.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Be, may be, loved.
iuno-r,
am5-ris (-re),
am5-tur.
amC-mur,
ame-minl,
ame-ntur.
Were, might be, loved.
ama-re-r,
amS-rg-ris (-re),
ama-rg-tur.
amu-re-mur,
ama-r6-minl,
ama-re-ntur,
Have been loved, was loved.
SG. — i. ama-t-us, -a, -um sum,
2. es,
3- est,
PL. — i. amS-t-I, -ae, -a sumus,
2. estis,
3. sunk
Have, may have, been loved.
ama-t-us, -a, -um sim,
sis,
sit,
ama-t-I, -ae, -a
simus,
sltis,
sint.
REGULAR VERBS. 75
First Conjugation.
PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PLUPERFECT.
Had been loved. Had, might have, been loved.
So. — i. Jimu-t-us, -a, -am eram, ama-t-us, -a, -am essem,
2. eras, esses,
3. erat, esset,
PL. — i. amS-t-I, -ae, -a eramus, amS-t-I, -ae, -a essemas,
2. eratis, essetis,
3. erant. esseiit.
FUTURE PERFECT.
Shall have been loved.
So. — i. amS-t-as, -a, -um erO,
2. eris,
3. erit.
PL. — i. ama-t-I, -ae, -a erimas,
2. erit is,
3. erant.
IMPERATIVE.
PRESENT. FUTURE.
Sa.— i. , ,
2. ama-re, be thou loved. ama-tor, thou shall be loved,
3. , ama-tor, he shall be loved.
PL.— i. , ,
2. araa-mini, be ye loved. ,
3. . ama-ntor, they shall be loved.
INFINITIVE.
PRES. amS-rl, to be loved.
PERF. ama-t-um, -am, -am ease, to have been loved.
FUT. ama-tom Irl, to be about to be loved.
FUT. PF. ama-t-om, -am, -am fore.
PARTICIPLE. GERUNDIVE.
PERT, ama-t-as, -a, -am, loved. ama-nd-us, -a, -am, (one) to be loved.
76
REGULAR VERBS.
123. Second Conjugation.
CONJUGATION OF delere, to destroy (Not out).
PRIN. PARTS : dele-6, dele-re, dele-vl, dele-turn.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC.
So. — dele-ba-m,
dele-ba-s,
d5le-ba-t,
PL. — dele-ba-mus,
dele-ba-tis,
dele-ba-nt.
So.— dele-M,
dele-bi-8,
dele-bi-t,
PL.— dele-bi-mus,
d5le-bi-tis,
dele-bu-nt.
SUBJV.
ESTDIC.
SUBJV
PKKSENT.
So.— dele-5,
dele-s,
dele-t,
delea-m,
delea-s,
delea-t,
d6le-o-r,
dele-ris (-re),
dele-tur,
delea-r,
delea-ris (-re),
delea-tur,
PL, — dele-mas,
dele-tis,
dele-nt.
deleS-mus,
dr-lrfi-tis,
delea-nt.
dele-xnur,
dele-mini,
dele-ntur.
dele-S-mor,
delc-a-mini,
dele-a-ntor.
dele-re-m,
dele-re-s,
dele-re-t,
del6-r6-mus,
del5-r6-tis,
d6le-re-nt.
IMPERFECT.
dele-ba-r,
dele-ba-ris (-re),
dele-ba-tur,
dele-ba-mur,
dele-ba-minl,
del5-ba-ntur,
dele-re-r,
dele-r6-ris (-re),
dele-re-tur,
dele-rS-mur,
dele-r6-mini,
dele-re-ntur.
FUTUBE.
dele-bo-r,
dele-be-ris (re),
dele-bi-tur,
dele-bi-mur,
dele-bi-mini,
dele-bu-ntur.
PERFECT.
So.— dele-v-I,
dele-v-istl,
dele-v-it,
dele-v-eri-m,
dele-v-erl-s,
dele-v-eri-t,
dele-t-us sum,
es,
ert,
PL. — dele-v-imus,
dele-v-istis,
dele-v-eri-mus,
dele-v-eri-tis,
delC-t-l sumus,
estis,
dele-t-ns sim,
dele-t-i
dele-v-erunt (-ere), dele-v-eri-nt,
sunt,
sit.
slmus,
sitis,
sint.
REGULAR VERBS.
77
Second Conjugation.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. STJBJV.
PLUPERFECT.
SG. — dele-v-era-m, dele-v-isse-m, dele-t-us eram, dele-t-us essem,
dele-v-era-s, dele-v-issS-s, eras, essgs,
dele-v-era-t, dele-v-isse-t. erat, esset.
PL. — dele-v-era-mus, dele-v-isse"-mus, dele-t-I eramus, dele-t-I essemus,
dele-v-era-tis, dele-v-isse"-tis,
dele-v-era-nt, dele-v-isse-nt.
eratis,
erant,
essgtis,
esseut.
So. — dele-v-er-5,
dele-v-er!-s,
dele-v-eri-t,
PL. — dele-v-erl-mus,
dele-v-er!-tis,
dele-v-eri-nt,
PRESENT.
FUTURE PERFECT.
dele-t-us er5,
eris,
erit.
dele-t-i erimus,
eritis,
erunt.
IMPERATIVE.
FUTURE. PRESENT.
FUTURK.
So.
PL.
dele,
dele-te,
d5le-t5,
dele-t5,
dele-tote,
d5le-nto.
dele-re,
d&le-mini,
d5l6-tor,
dele-tor.
dele-ntor.
PBES. dele-re.
PERF. dele-v-isse.
INFINITIVE.
PRES. dele-rl.
PERF. dele-t-um, -am, -um esse.
FUT. dele-tur-um, -am, -um esse.
GERUND.
N. [dele-re],
G. dele-nd-I.
D. dele-nd-5.
Ac. [dele-re]
(ad) dele-nd-um.
Ab. dele-nd-o.
SUPINE.
Ac. dele-turn.
Ab. dele-tu.
PUT. dele-turn irl.
FUT. PF. dele-t-um, -am, -um fore.
PARTICIPLES.
PRES. N. del5-n-s ; G. dele-nt-is.
PUT. dele-tur-us, -a, -um.
PEHF. dele-t-us, -a, -um.
GERUNDIVE,
dele-nd-us, -a, -uia.
78 REGULAR VERBS.
124. Like delere, to destroy, are conjugated only, nere, to spin,
flere, to weep, and the compounds of -plere, fill, and -olere grow
(the latter with Supine in -itum); also ciere, to stir up. See 13 7 (b).
All other verbs of the Second Conjugation retain the character-
istic e in the Present System, but drop it in the Perfect System,
changing vi to ui, and weaken it to i in the Supine System.
Second Conjugation.
CONJUGATION OF monere, to remind.
PRIN. PARTS : mone-o, mon5-re, mon-ui, mom-turn.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC.
SUBJV. INDIC.
SUBJV.
PRESENT.
So. — mone-5,
monea-m, mone-o-r,
monea-r,
mone-s,
monea-s, mone-ris (-re),
monea-ris (-re),
mone-t,
monea-t, mone-tur,
raonea-tur,
PL. — mone-mus,
monea-mns, mone-mur,
mone-a-mur,
mon5-tis,
monea-tis, mone-minl,
mone-a-minl,
mone-nt.
monea-nt. mone-ntur.
mone-a-ntur.
IMPERFECT.
SG . — mon5-ba-m,
mone-re-m, mon6-ba-r,
mone-re-r,
mone-ba-s,
mone-r6-s, mone-ba-ris (-re),
mone-rS-ris (-re),
mone-ba-t,
mone-re-t, mone-ba-tur,
moiie-rS-tur,
PL. — mone-ba-mus,
mone-r6-mus, mone-ba-mur,
mone-r5-nmr,
mone-ba-tis,
mone-r8-tis, mone-ba-minl,
mone-rS-minl,
mone-ba-nt.
mone-re-nt. mone-ba-ntur.
mone-re-ntur.
FUTURE.
So. — mon5-b-5,
mone-bo-r,
mone-bi-s,
mone-be-ris (-re),
mone-bi-t,
mone-bi-tur,
PL. i — mone-bi-mus,
mone-bi-mur,
mone-bi-tis,
mone-bi-minl,
mone-bu-nt.
mon5-bu-ntur.
PERFECT.
Se. — mon-u-I,
mon-u-eri-m, moni-t-us sum,
moni-t-us sim,
mon-u-istl,
mon-u-erl-s, es,
sis,
mon-u-it,
mon-u-eri-t, est,
sit,
PL. — LUOI i -u-imus ,
mon-u-er!-mus, moni-t-I sumus,
moni-t-I slum
mon-u-istis,
mon-u-erl-tis, estis,
sitis,
mon-u-erunt (-6re). mon-u-eri-nt. sunt.
sint.
REGULAR VERBS.
79
Second Conjugation.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV.
PLUPERFECT.
go. — mon-u-era-m, mon-u-isse-m, raoni-t-us eram. moni-t-us essem,
mon-u-era-s, mon-u-isse"-s, eras, esses,
mon-u-era-t, mon-u-isse-t. erat, esset,
PL.—
•mon-u-era-mus, mon-u-issg-mus, moni-t-I eramus, moni-t-I essSmus,
mon-u-era-tis, mon-u-issB-tis, eratis, essStis,
mon-u-era-nt. mon-u-isse-nt. erant. essent.
SG.—
PL.—
SG.
PL.
mon-u-er-3,
mon-u-erl-s,
mon-u-eri-t,
mon-u-erl-mus,
mon-u-erl-tis,
mon-u-eri-nt.
PRESENT.
mon6,
FUTURE.
monB-t5,
mone-t5,
FUTURE PERFECT.
moni-t-us er6,
ens,
erit,
moni-t-I erimus,
eritis,
erunt.
IMPERATIVE.
PRESENT.
mone-re,
FUTURE.
mone-tor,
mone-tor,
mone-te,
mone-t5te,
mone-nt5.
mone-minl,
mone-ntor.
PRES.
PERP.
FUT.
N.
G.
D.
Ac.
Ab.
INFINITIVE.
mon5-re. PRES. mone-rL
mon-u-isse. PERF. moni-t-um, -am, -tun esse.
moni-tur-um, -am, um ease. FUT. moni-t-um Irl.
FUT. PP. moni-t-um, -am, -um fore.
GERUND. SUPINE.
[mon5-re].
mone-nd-I.
mone-nd-5.
[mone-re] Ac. moni-tum.
(ad) mone-nd-um.
mone-nd-5. Ab. moni-tu.
PARTICIPLES.
PRES. N. mon5-n-s ; G. mone-nt-is.
FUT. moui-tur-us, -a, -um.
moni-t-us, -a, -um.
GERUNDIVE,
mone-nd-us, -a, -um,
8o
REGULAR VERBS.
125.
Third Conjugation.
CONJUGATION OF emere, to buy.
PRIN. PARTS : em-o, erne-re, 6m-I, 6m(p)-tum.
ACTIVE.
PASSIVE.
ENDIC.
SG. — ema-m,
emB-s,
eme-t,
PL. — eme-mus,
em5-tis,
eme-nto
SUBJV.
INDIC.
SUBJV.
PRESENT.
So -"-em-o,
ema-m,
em-o-r,
ema-r,
emi-s,
ema-s,
eme-ris (-re),
ema-ris (-re),
emi-t,
rma-t,
emi-tur,
ema-tur,
PL. — emi-mus,
ema-mus,
emi-mnr,
ema-mur,
emi-tis,
ema-tis,
emi-minl.
emS-minl,
emu-nt.
ema-nt.
emu-ntur.
ema-ntur.
IMPERPBCT.
So. — erne-ba-m,
eme-re-m.
em5-ba-r, eme-re-r,
em5-ba-s,
eme-rS-s,
emB-ba-ris (-re,) eme-re-ris (-re),
eme-ba-t,
eme-re-t,
eme-ba-tur, eme-r&-tur.
PL. — em5-ba-mus,
eme-r6-mus,
eme-ba-mur, eme-rfr-mur,
eme-ba-tis,
eme-re-tis,
em6-ba-ininl, eme-rfi-minl,
em6-ba-nt.
eme-re-nt.
em6-ba-ntur. eme-re-ntur,
FUTUBE.
ema-r,
eme-ris (-re),
em6-tur,
em6-mttr,
em5-minl,
eme-ntur.
PERFECT.
SG. — em-I, em-eri-m,
emp-t-us stun.
emp-t-us aim,
Bm-isti, 5m-eri-s,
es,
sis,
em-it, em-eri-t,
est,
sit,
PL. — em-imns, em-erl-muB,
emp-t-I sumus.
emp-t-I simus,
em-istis, em-erl-tis,
estis.
sltis.
em-erunt (-6re). Sm-eri-nt.
sont.
sint.
REGULAR VERBS.
81
INDIC.
Third Conjugation.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
SUBJV. INDIC.
PLUPERFECT.
SUBJV.
G. — 5m-era-m,
5m-era-s,
5m-era-t,
em-isse-m,
em-iss6-s,
5m-isse-t,
emp-t-us eram, 5mp-t-us essem,
eras, . esses,
erat, esset,
'L.— 5m-era-mus,
em-era-tis,
em-era-nt.
riu-isse-mus, emp-t-I eramus, 5mp-t-I essgmus,
Cm-isse-tis. eratis, essetis.
cin-isse-nt. erant. essent.
FUTURE PERFECT.
G. — 5m-er-5,
5m-eris,
Em-eri-t,
5mp-t-us er5,
eris,
erit,
'L. — em-eri-mus,
5m-eri-tis,
5m-eri-nt.
emp-t-I erimus,
eritis,
emnt.
IMPERATIVE.
PRESENT.
G.
erne,
>T
FUTURE.
emi-t5,
emi-t5,
emi-t5te,
ATrm-ntn
PRESENT. FUTURE.
erne-re, emi-tor,
emi-torj
emi-minl.
Amii.ni-Ai.
emi-te.
RES. erae-re.
ERF. 6m-isse.
INFINITIVE.
PRES. era-I.
PERF. 5mp-t-um, -am, -um esse.
UT. emp-tirr-um, -am, -um esse.
FUT. 5m p -turn iri.
FUT.PF. Emp-t-um, -am, -um fore.
GERUND.
SUPINE.
PARTICIPLES.
f. [eme-re].
PRES. N. em5-n-s ; G. eme-nt-is.
k em-e-nd-I.
FUT. 6mp-tur-us, -a, -um.
>. em-e-nd-5.
PERF. Emp-t-us, -a, -um.
LC. [em-e-re]
Ac. cmp-turn.
(ad) em-e-ndum,
GERUNDIVE.
ib. em-e-nd-6.
Ab. emp-tu.
em-e-nd-us, -a, -um.
6
82
REGULAR VERBS.
126. Many verbs of the third conjugation with stem in ie (Prei
Indie, in io) weaken this ie to e before -re, and to i before m,
and t in all tenses of the Present System except the Futur<
Otherwise they follow the inflection of eme-re.
These verbs are capio, cupio, facio, fodio, fagio, iacio, pan
quatio, rapid, sapio, and their compounds ; also compounds <
-licio, -spicio, and the deponents gradior and its compound;
morior and its compounds, patior and its compounds.
SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT SYSTEM OF cape-re, to take.
PEIN. PARTS : capi-o, cape-re, ce>l, cap-turn.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC.
8UBJV.
FNDIC.
SUBJV.
PRESENT.
So. — capi-8,
capi-s,
capi-t,
capia-m,
capia-s,
capia-t,
capi-o-r,
cape-ris (-re),
capi-tur,
capia-r,
capia-ris (-re),
capiS-tur,
PL. — eapi-mus,
capi-tis,
capiu-nt.
capia-mus,
capia-tis,
capia-nt.
capi-mur,
capi-minl,
capiu-ntur.
capia-mur,
capia-minl,
capia-ntur.
IMPERFECT.
So. — capie-ba-m,
etc.
So. — capia-m,
capi5-s,
etc.
PBES.
cap-e-re-m,
etc.
capi-6-ba-r,
etc.
eape-re-r,
etc.
FUTUBK.
capi-te.
PBES. cape-re.
PARTICIPLE.
PBES. capie-n-s.
capia-r,
capiG-ris (-re),
etc.
IMPERATIVE.
Pur. PRES.
cap-i-t5, cape-re,
cap-i-t5,
capi-t5te, capi-minl.
capiu-nt9.
Fur.
capi-tor,
capi-tor,
capiu-ntor.
GERUND.
G. capie-nd-i.
cap-I.
GERUNDIVE.
capie-nd-us, -a, -tun.
REGULAR VERBS.
127. Fourth Conjugation.
CONJUGATION OF audire, to hear.
PRIN. PARTS : audi-o, aucll-re, audl-vl, audl-tura.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SttBJV.
PRESENT.
So. — audi-6,
audi-s,
audi-t,
audia-m,
audia-s,
audia-t,
audi-o-r,
audi-ris (re),
audl-tur,
audia-r,
audia-ris (-re),
audia-tur,
PL. — audi-mus,
audi-tis,
audiu-nt.
audiu-raus,
audifi-tis,
audia-nt.
audl-mur,
audi-minl,
audi-u-ntur.
audia-mur,
audia-minl,
audia-ntur.
So. — audi5-ba-m,
audi5-ba-s,
audie-ba-t,
audl-re-m,
audl-rS-s,
audi-re-t,
PL.-
— audie-ba-mus,
audie-ba-tis,
audie-ba-nt.
audi-r6-mus,
audi-r6-tis,
audi-re-nt.
IMPERFECT.
audie-ba-r, audl-re-r,
audie-ba-ris (re), audl-rg-ris (-re),
audie-ba-tur, audl-r5-tur,
audie-ba-mur, audi-rS-mur,
audi5-ba-mini, audl-rS-minl,
audie-ba-ntor. audl-re-ntur.
FUTURE.
SG. — audia-m,
audi5-s,
audie-t,
PL. — audie-mus,
audie-tis,
audie-nt.
audia-r,
audie-ris (-re),
audi5-tur,
audie-mur,
audir-mini,
audie-ntur.
PERFECT.
So. — audi-v-I,
audl-v-eri-m, audl-t-us sum,
audl-t-us sim,
audi-v-istl,
audl-v-erl-s,
es,
sis,
audi-v-it,
audl-v-eri-t,
est,
sit,
PL. — audl-v-imus,
audl-v-erl-nras, audl-t-I
sumus,
audi-t-I slmuS;
audi-v-istis,
audl-v-eri-tis,
estis,
sitis,
audl-v-6runt (-Sre).
audl-v-eri-nt.
sunt.
sint.
84
REGULAR VERBS.
Fourth Conjugation.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC.
SUBJV.
INDIC.
SUBJV.
PLUPERFECT.
SG. — audi-v-era-m,
audl-v-isse-m,
audi-t-us eram,
audl-tu-s essem,
audi-v-era-s,
audl-v-issS-s,
eras,
esses,
audl-v-era-t,
audl-v-isse-t,
erat,
esset,
PL. — audl-v-er a-mus,
audl-v-isse-mus,
audl-t-I eramus,
audl-t-I essemua
audl-v-era-tis,
audi-v-issS-tis,
eratis,
essetis,
audl-v-era-nt.
audi-v-isse-nt.
erant,
essent.
FUTURE
PEBPECT.
SG. — audI-v-er-5,
audl-t-ns ero,
audl-v-erl-s,
eris,
audl-v-eri-t,
erit,
PL. — audi-v-eri-mus,
audi-t-I erimus,
audi-v-eri-tis,
eritis,
audl-v-eri-nt.
erunt.
IMPERATIVE.
PRESENT.
FUTUKE.
PRESENT.
FUTURE.
So.
audl,
audi-t5,
audl-re,
audl-tor,
audi-t5,
audi-tor,
PL.
audi-te.
;tudl-tote,
audl-minl.
— -
audiu-nto.
audiu-ntor.
PRES. audl-re.
PERF. audl-v-isse.
Fur. audi-tur-um, -am, -um
GERUND.
N. [audi-re].
G. audie-nd-I.
D. audie-nd-5.
Ac. [audl-re]
(ad) audie-nd-nm.
Ab. audie-nd-6.
INFINITIVE.
PRES. audl-rl.
PERF. audl-t-um, -am, um esse.
ise. FUT. audi-ttim iri.
FUT.PF. audl-t-um, -am, -um fore.
SUPINE. PARTICIPLES.
PRES. N. audi5-n-s, G. audie-nt-is
FUT. audi-tur-us, -a, -um.
PERF. audl-t-us, -a, -um.
Ac. audl-tum.
Ab. audl-tu.
GERUNDIVE,
audie-nd-us, -a, -um.
DEPONENT VERBS.
DEPONENT VERBS.
128. Deponent verbs have the passive form, but are active
in meaning. They have also the Present and Future Active
Participles, and the Future Active Infinitive. Thus a depo-
nent verb alone can have a Present, Future, and Perfect
Participle, all with active meaning. The Gerundive, how-
ever, is passive in meaning as well as in form.
The conjugation differs in no particular from that of the
regular conjugation.
i. First Conjugation.
CONJUGATION OF hortart, to exhort.
PRIN. PARTS: hort-or, horta-rl, horta-tus sum.
INDICATIVE.
Exhort,
So. — hort-o-r,
horta-ris (-re),
horta-tur,
PL. — hort&-mur,
horta-minl,
horta-ntur.
Was exhorting.
SG. — horta-ba-r,
horta-bS-ris (-re),
horta-ba-tur,
PL. — horta-ba-mur,
horta-ba-minl,
horta-ba-ntur.
Shall exhort.
SG. — horta-bo-r,
horta-be-ris (-re),
horta-bi-tur,
PL. — horta-bi-mur,
horta-bi-minl,
horta-bu-ntur.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
Be exhorting, may exhort.
horte-r,
horte-ris (-re),
hort5-tur,
hort5-mur,
horte-minl,
horte-ntur.
IMPERFECT.
Were exhorting, might exhort.
horta-re-r,
horta-rS-ris (-re),
horta-r6-tur,
horta-rS-mur,
horta-re-minl,
horta-re-ntur.
FUTURE.
86 DEPONENT VERBS.
PERFECT.
Have exhorted, exhorted. Have, may have, exhorted.
SG. — horta-t-us, -a, -um sum, horta-t-us, -a, -um sim,
es, sis,
est, sit,
PL. — horta-t-I, -ae, -a sumus, horta-t-I, -ae, -a slmus,
estis, sltis,
sunt. sint.
PLUPERFECT.
Had exhorted. Had, might have, exhorted.
SG. — horta-t-us, -a, -um eram, horta-t-us, -a, -um essem,
er&s, esses,
erat, esset,
PL. — horta-t-I, -ae, -a eramus, horta-t-I, -ae, -a essemus,
eratis, essetis,
erant. essent.
FUTURE PERFECT.
Shall have exhorted.
SG. — horta-t-us, -a, -um er5,
eris,
erit,
PL. — horta-t-I, -ae, -a erimus,
eritis,
erunt.
IMPERATIVE.
PRESENT. FUTURE.
SG.
horta-re, exhort thou. horta-tor, thou shall exhort.
horta-tor, he shall exhort.
PL.
horta-minl, exhort ye.
horta-ntor, they shall exhort.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES.
PRES. horta-rl, to exhort. PRES. horta-n-s, exhorting.
PUT. horta-tur-um, am, -um esse, FUT. horta-tur-us, -a, um, about
to be about to exhort. to exhort.
PERF. horta-t-um, -am, -um esse, to PEHF. hortS-t-us, -a, -um, having
have exhorted. exhorted.
F. P. horta-t-um, -am, -um fore. GERUNDIVE.
SUPINE. horta-nd-us, -a, -um, [one] to be
Ac. horta-tum, to exhort, for ex- exhorted.
horting. GERUND.
Ab. horta-tu, to exhort, in the ex- G. horta-nd-I, of exhorting.
horting.
DEPONENT VERBS.
2. Second, Third, Fourth Conjugations.
SYNOPSIS OF vererl, to fear; loqui, to speak; mentiri, to lie.
PRIN. PARTS : vere-or, ver6-rl, veri-tus sum; loqu-or, loqu-i, locu-tua sum;
nieuti-or, menti-ri, mentl-tus sum.
PEES.
IMPERP.
PUT.
PERF.
PLUPP.
FUT. PP.
PEES.
INDICATIVE.
II.
in.
IV.
vere-o-r,
loqu-o-r,
menti-o-r,
vere-ris (-re), etc.,
loque-ris (-re), etc.,
mentl-ris (-re), etc.t
ver5-ba-r,
Ioqu5-ba-r,
menti5-ba-r,
vere-bo-r,
loqua-r.
mentia-r,
veri-t-us sum,
locu-t-us sum,
menti-t-us sum,
veri-t-us eram,
locu-t-us eram,
menti-t-us eram,
veri-t-us er5.
locu-t-us ero.
menti-t-us er5.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
verea-r, loqua-r, mentia-r,
verea-ris (-re), etc., loqua-ris (-re), etc., mentia-ris(-re),efc.,
menti-re-r,
menti-t-us sim,
menti-t-us essem.
mentl-re,
inentl-tor.
mentl-rf,
menti-tur-um esse,
menti-t-um esse,
menti-t-um fore.
mentie-n-s,
menti-tur-us,
menti-t-us.
mentie-nd-1,
mentie-nd-us,
mentl-tum,
mentl-tu.
IMPEBP.
PEKP.
PLUPP.
verG-re-r,
veri-t-us sim,
veri-t-us essem.
loque-re-r,
locu-t-us sim,
locu-t-us essem.
IMPERATIVE.
PBES.
FUT.
vere-re,
vere-tor.
loque-re,
loqui-tor.
INFINITIVE.
PRES.
PUT.
PERF.
FUT. PP.
vere-ri,
veri-tur-um esse,
veri-t-um esse,
veri-t-um fore.
loqu-I,
locu-tur-um esse,
locu-t-um esse,
locu-t-um fore.
PARTICIPLES.
PBES.
FUT.
PERF
vere-n-s,
veri-tur-us,
veri-t-us.
loque-n-s,
locu-tur-us,
locu-t-us.
GERUND. vere-nd-I, etc.,
GERUNDIVE, vere-nd-us,
SUPINE. veri-tum,
veri-tu.
loque-nd-i,
loque-nd-us,
locu-tum,
locu-tu.
88 PEEIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
Periphrastic Conjugation.
129. The Periphrastic Conjugation arises from the com-
bination of the Future Participle active and the Gerundive
with forms of the verb sum.
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PBES. amaturus (-a, -um) sum, amaturus (-a, -urn) sim,
Am about to love. Be about to love.
IMPF. amaturus eram, amaturus essem,
Was about to love. Were about to love.
PUT. amaturus ero,
Shall be about to love.
PEKF. amaturus fui, amaturus fuerim,
Save been, was, about to love. Have, may have, been
about to love.
FLUFF. amaturus fueram, amaturus fuissem,
Jlad been about to love. Had, might have, been
about to love.
FUT. PEKF. amaturus fuero,
Shall have been about to love.
INFINITIVE. PBES. amatur-um (-am, -um) esse, To be about to love.
PERT. amatur-um fuisse, To have been about to love.
PASSIVE.
PBES. amandus (-a, -um) sum, amandus (-a, -um) sim,
Have to be loved. Have to be loved.
IMPF. amandus eram, amandus essem, forem,
Had to be loved. Had to be loved.
FUT. amandus ero, Shall have to be loved.
PEBF. amandus fui, amandus fuerim,
Have had to be loved. Have had to be loved.
PLTTPF. amandus fueram, amandus fuissem,
Had had to be loved. Should have had to be
loved.
INFINITIVE. PBES. amandum (-am, -urn) esse, To have to be loved.
PERI, amandum fuisse, To have had to be loved.
NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 89
Notes on the Four Conjugations.
130. The Present System.
1. PRESENT INDICATIVE. — (a) In the third person Singular active, early Latin, and
occasionally later poets, often retain the original length of vowel in the endings -at, -8t,
and -It of the first, second, and fourth conjugations. Final -It in the third conjuga-
tion is rare, and due, perhaps, to analogy or to metrical necessity. In the first person
Plural the ending -mus is found a few times in poetry. In third person Plural an
earlier ending, -onti, is found only in a Carmen Saliare, and is disputed. The ending
•out is frequent in early Latin for -unt.
(b) In the second Singular, passive, in all tenses of the Present stem, the ending -re
is much more common in early Latin than -ris, and is regular in Cic. except in the Pr.
Indie., where he prefers -ris on account of confusion with Pr. Inf., admitting -re only
in deponents, and then but rarely. In general, in the Pr. Indie, -re is rare in the first
and second conjugations, more rare ii the third, and never found in the fourth, in prose
authors. Post-Ciceronian prose writers, e. g., LIVT, TACITUS, prefer -ris, even in the
other tenses of the Present stem. The poets use -ris or -re to suit the metre.
2. IMPERFECT INDICATIVE. — In the fourth conjugation, instead of -ig-, we find in
early times -I-. This is common in early Latin (especially sclbam), in the poets to suit
the metre, and occasionally in later prose. In the verb e5, and its compounds (but
ambire varies), this form was regular always.
3. FUTURE INDICATIVE. — PLAUTUS shows sporadic cases of -It, as erlt, vSnlbit
(v6neo). In the fourth conjugation -fl)5 for -iam is very common in early Latin
(especially sdb6), and forms in -Ibo of the third conjugation are occasional.
4. PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.— Final -at of the third person Singular active is occa-
sional in early Latin and also in later poets. In early Latin the active endings -im, -Is,
•it, -int are found in dare (and some compounds), which forms very often duim,
duls, duit, duint. On similar forms from esse, see 116 ; from edere, see 172.
5. IMPERATIVE.— (a) Four verbs, dlcere, ducere, facere, ferre (171), form the Pr.
Impv. active die, due, fac, fer. But in early Latin dice, duce , face are not uncommon.
The compounds follow the usage of the simple verbs, except non-prepositional com-
pounds of facio. Scire, to know, lacks the Pr. Impv. scl.
(b) The original ending of the Fut. Impv. active -t5d is found in early inscriptions,
but very rarely.
(c) The Pr. Impv. passive (second and third Singular) ends occasionally in early Latin
in -mino.
6. PRESENT INFINITIVE PASSIVE.— The early ending -rier (-ier) is very common in
early Latin and occasionally in poetry at all periods. PLAUTUS shows about 140 such
formations. In literary prose it does not appear till very late.
7. The PRESENT PARTICIPLE occurs sporadically in early Latin with the ending
•5s, -5s, the n having been omitted owing to its weak sound ; see 12, R. i.
8. The older ending of the GERUND and GERUNDIVE in the third and fourth conju-
gations was -undus ; and -endus was found only after u. In classical times -undus
is frequent, especially in verbs of third and fourth conjugations. Later, -endus is the
regular form.
131. The Perfect System.
i. SYNCOPATED FORMS.— The Perfects in -avl, -evi, -Ivi, often drop
the v before s or r, and contract the vowels throughout, except those in
-Ivi, which admit the contraction only before s.
The syncopated forms are found in all periods, and in the poets are
used to suit the metre.
9<D NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS.
PERFECT.
SING. 1.
2. amavisti, amasti. delevisti, delesti. audivistl, audistl.
3.
PLUB. 1.
2. amavistis, amastis. delevistis, delestis. audlvistis, audlstis.
3. amaverunt, amarunt. dSl6v6runt, delerunt. audiv6nmt, audierunt.
SUBJY. amaverim, ainarim, deleverim, delerim, audlverim, audieriui,
etc. etc. eic.
PLUPERFECT.
IN DIC-. amaveram, amaram, deleveram, deleram, audiveram, audieram,
etc. etc. etc.
SUBJV. amavissem, ainasseni, delevisseni, delessem, audivissem, audissem,
etc. etc. etc.
FUTURE PERFECT.
ainavero, amaro, delevero, delero, audivero, audiero,
etc. etc. etc.
INFINITIVE PERFECT.
amavisse, amasse. delevisse, delesse. audivisse, audisse.
2. In the first and third persons Sing, and in the first person PL
of the Perfect, syncope occurs regularly only in Perfects in IvI, and
no contraction ensues. It is most common in the Perfects of Ire
(169) and petere. In other verbs this syncopation is post-Ciceronian,
except in a few forms. So CICERO uses dormiit, erudiit, expediit, molliit,
cupiit (also PLAUTUS) ; CAESAR, communiit, resciit, qaaesiit. Desinere
forms desii and desiit, once each in early Latin (CICERO uses dSstiti
and destitit instead), and then in post- Augustan Latin ; dgsiimus is
cited once from CICERO. The unsyncopated forms are always common
except those of Ire (169), which are very rare in classical prose, but
occur more often in the poets for metrical reasons.
NOTE.— The forms nSmus (ENN. = nSvimus), gnarramus (TER.,^l<i.,36s), flS-
mus, mutamus, and narramus (PROP.), suSmus (LUCR.), in the Perfect, are sporadic
and sometimes doubtful.
3. n6vl, I know, and mOvI, I have moved, are also contracted, in
their compounds especially.
SING.— 2. nSstl. PLUR.— 2. nostis. 3. ndrunt. SUBJV. n5rim, etc.
PLUPF. nSram, etc. SUBJV. nossem, etc. INF. nosse.
But the Put. Perf . n5ro is found only in compounds.
Similar contractions are seen in movl, but not so often ; iflvl shows also a few
cases of syncope in poetry.
4. (a) In the early Latin poets frequently and occasionally in later, syncope takes
place in Perfects in -si. These drop the s and contract. A few cases are found hi
CICERO, especially in the letters. Examples arc dlxtl (found also in Cic. and probably
an earlier formation, and not by syncope for dlxistl) ; duxti, principally in compounds ;
intellextKonceinCic.); scripstl ; mlstl (mlsistl) and several others ; also scrlpstis.
(6) Akin to these are a number of forms in -s5 for Fut. Perfect ; -sim for Pf.
Subjv. and more rarely -sem for Plupf . Subjv. These forms are most usual in the
third conjugation, but are also not unfrequent in the other three ; thus,
THE STEM. 91
•
1. Future Perfect : fax5 (facere) ; capsd (capere) and compounds ; iuss5(iubere ;
VERG.) ; amasso (amare) ; servasso (servare) and compounds, together with some
others.
2. Perfect Sulyunctive : faxim and compounds ; duxim ; ausim ( auclere, also
used by Cic.) ; iussim ; cmpsim teniere) ; locassim ( locate) ; aegassim (negare).
In the second and third persons Sing., where the Fut. Pf . Indie, and the Pf. Subjv. are
identical, the forms are much more common. The plural forms are much less frequent.
3. Pluperfect Subjunctive : faxem ; pro-mlssem ; intel-lexSs ; re-cSsset and a
few other forms ; Sr@psSm.US (HOB., S., i. 5, 79). These forms are rare.
4. Infinitive : dlxe ; dS-spexe ; ad-duxe, etc. ; intel-lexe ; de-traxe, etc. ; ad-
vexe ; ad-misse, and a few others. Also the Future forms averuncassere, reconcili-
assere, impetrassere, oppugaassere.
The exact origin of these forms is still a matter of dispute, but the common view is
that they are aoristic formations.
5. From the earliest times the third Plural of the Pf . Indie, active shows two end-
ings, -Sront (later -Srunt) and -6re. The form in -Brant was always preferred, and
in classical prose is the normal form. The form in -Sre seems to have been the popu-
lar form, and is much liked by LIVY and later writers. TACITUS seems to have pre-
ferred -grunt for the Pure Perfect, and -gre for the Historical Perfect. The poets
scan, according to the exigencies of the metre, at all periods also grunt.
6. In regard to the other endings, we have to notice in early Latin -Is occasionally
in the Pf . Subjv. and Fut. Pf. Indie, active ; Perfects in -il are always written with -iei-
on inscriptions ; hi other Perfects the third person Singular in -Sit (older -St), or -It ;
as dedet ; occasionally the first person ends in -el and the second in -istei. Peculiar
forms are dedrot (dedro), (for dederunt), fBcSd (for fgcit), and a few others.
THE STEM.
132. With the exception of the verbs sum, / am, edo, I eat,
eo, I go, fero, / bear, void, I wish (perhaps do, I give), and
their compounds, most of whose forms come directly from
the root, all verbs in Latin form their stems from the root by
the addition of a vowel or of a combination of a vowel with a
consonant. This vowel is called the thematic vowel ; see 190.
In the first, second, and fourth conjugations, and in some
verbs of the third conjugation, the stem thus formed is found
throughout the whole conjugation ; in other verbs the present
stem shows different forms from the other stems.
1. THE PRESENT STEM.
133. I. The, Stem or Thematic class : To this class belong those verbs
whose stems are formed by the addition of a thematic vowel (usually i,
sometimes u) to the root, as in the third conjugation, or to a stem
formed by the addition of a, 8, or i to the root, as in the first, sec-
ond, and fourth conjugations. The stem thus formed is seen (with
lengthened vowel sometimes) in all forms of the verb. To this class
belong verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjugations, and in the
92 THE STEM.
third (a) verbs formed from a strong root, i. e., verbs with 1, u, a, e, 6,
ae, au ; and with e in the stem ; as dico (= deicS), duco (= douco), rado,
cedo, rodo, caedo, plaudo ; veb.5, vergo, pendo, etc.; (b) verbs formed from
a weak root, *'. e., those with vowel i, u, 6, and probably those with a:
as di-vido, faro, olo (olere), ago.
II. The Reduplicated class : The Present stem is formed by redupli-
cation, with i in the reduplicated syllable :
gen-, gi-gno (for GI-GEN-O), gi-gne-re, to beget ; sta-, si-sto, si-ste-re, to
set, stand. Compare stare, to stand. Other forms, as sldo (for SI-S(E)DO),
Ber5 (for si-so), and perhaps bibo, have the Reduplication concealed.
III. The T class : The root, which usually ends in a guttural, is
strengthened by to, te : flecto (FLEC-), flecte-re, to bend.
IV. The Nasal class: In this class the root is strengthened by
no, ne, the nasal being inserted
A. In vowel-stems : sinO (si-), sine-re, to let ; line (LI-), line-re, to be-
smear.
B. After the characteristic liquid : cerno (CEE-), cerne-re, to sift,
separate ; temno (TEM-), temne-re, to scorn.
NOTES.— 1. After 1 assimilation takes place : pello (for pel-n5), pelle-re, to drive.
2. In a few verbs the strengthened forms (-no after a vowel, -ino after a liquid) are
confined mainly to the third person Plural active of the Present, and are found not later
than the close of the sixth century of the city : danunt (= dant), explenunt
(= explent), nequinont (= nequeunt), and a few others.
C. Before the characteristic mute : vinco (vie-), vince-re, to conquer ;
frango (FRAG-), frange-re, to break; fundo (FUD-), funde-re, to pour.
Before a p-mute n becomes m: rumpo (BUP-), rumpe-re, to rend;
combo (CUB-), cumbe-re, to lie down.
D. Here belong also those verbs in which the root is strengthened
by -nuo, nue ; as sternuo (STER-), sternue-re, to sneeze.
NOTE.— In verbs like tinguo, I soak, the consonantal u disappears before a conso-
nant in the Pf . and Supine : tinxl, tine-turn.
V. The Inchoative class : The Present stem has the suffix -sco, -see.
ira-scor, lam in a rage ; cre-sco, I grow ; ob-dorml-sco, I fall asleep;
apl-scor, I reach; pro-fid-scor, I set out ; nanci-scor (NAC-), I get; n5-sco
(= gno-sco), / become acquainted ; po-sc5 (= porc-sco), I demand ; nHs-ce5
(= mic-sc-eoi, I mix; disco (= di-dc-sc3), / learn. A number of Incho-
atives are derivative formations from substantives ; as, lapidSsco (from
lapis), / become stone.
VI. The I class : Instead of the simple thematic vowel i the root is
increased by the form ie. In some forms of the Present stem, i. e., -the
Pr. Inf., Impf. Subjv., second Sing., Pr. Impv., this appears in the
form e ; in some other forms it appears as i : capi-6 (CAP-), cape-re, to
take.
THE STEM. 93
NOTE.— Verbs of the fourth conjugation also belong to the i class ; but for con-
venience the i class is here restricted as above.
VII. The Mixed class : Some verbs that originally belong to the
i-class have gone over in the Present stem to the forms of the stem
class : as venio (VEN-), venl-re, to come; video (VID-), vidS-re, to see; son5
(SON-), sona-re, to sound.
II. THE PERFECT STEM.
134. I. Perfect in -vi (or -ul) : These are formed by the addition •
(a) Of -vi to the stem as it appears in the Present Inf. in combina-
tion with the thematic vowel. To this class belong the Perfects of the
first and fourth conjugations, and the few verbs of the second conjuga-
tion mentioned in 124 ; ama-re, ama-vl ; audl-re, audl-vl ; dele-re, del5-vl.
(b) Of -uI to the Present stem after its characteristic vowel is
dropped. Here belong the majority of the verbs of the second conjuga-
tion ; mone-re, mon-ul.
II. Perfect in -si: These are formed by the addition of -si to the
root ; which is, as a rule, long either by nature or position. This class
comprises a large number of verbs in the third conjugation in which
the stem-characteristic consonant is a mute ; three in which it is -m
(preme-re, to press ; sume-re, to take ; con-tem(n)e-re, to scorn) ; and a few
in which it is -s, as ur-5, / burn, us-si; haereo, I stick, liaesl (= haes-sl).
Examples are r6p5, 1 creep, rep-si ; scrlbo, / write, scrip-si ; dic5, / say,
dixl (= dic-sl) ; carpo, I pluck, carp-si ; rado, I scrape, rasi (= rad-sl).
NOTE.— But verbs in -ndo, take I in the Perfect : defend-0, / strike (ward) off,
defend-i ; perhaps because they formed originally a reduplicated perfect ; as, mando,
I chew, man(di)dl ; so (fe)fendl, I have struck.
III. Reduplicated Perfects : These are formed by prefixing to the
unstrengthened root its first consonant (or consonantal combination)
together with the following vowel, a and ae being weakened to e, or, if
the root began with a vowel, by prefixing e, and adding the termination
•I. In Latin but few of these forms remain, and they have been vari-
ously modified : disco, I learn, di-dici ; spondeS, / pledge, spo(s)pondl ;
tango, J touch, te-ti-gl ; tundo, / strike, tu-tud-I ; ago, 7 act, Sgl
(= e-ag-I) ; emo, I buy, Smi (= e-em-I).
In composition the reduplication is in many cases dropped ; so
always in compounds of cade-re, to fall ; caede-re, to fell ; cane-re, to
sing ; falle-re, to deceive ; pange-re, to fix ; parce-re, to spare ; pare-re.
to bear ; pende-re, to hang ; punge-re, to prick ; tange-re, to touch ;
tende-re, to stretch (occasionally retained in late Latin) ; tonde-re, to
shear (but occasionally retained in late Latin) ; tunde-re, to strike.
Disc-ere, to learn, always retains it, and so posce-re, to demand, and ad-
mordere, to bite. Of compounds of curre-re, to run, succurrere always
94 THE STEM.
drops the reduplication, praecurrere always retains it : the others vary.
Of compounds of dare, abscondere usually drops it, but all trisyllabic
compounds that change the a, and all quadrisyllable compounds, retain
it. Compounds of sistere, to set, and stare, to stand, retain it.
IV. Perfect in I. Verbs of the third conjugation, with & short stem-
syllable, take I in the Perfect, after lengthening the stem-syllable and
changing a into 5. In many cases these Perfects are the remains of
reduplicated forms : Ieg6, / read, I5g-l ; vide-o, I see, vld-i ; fodi-o, 1
stab, f5d-I ; fugi-6, I flee, fug-I ; frang-S, I Ireak, freg-I.
V. Denominative verbs in-u5, like acu6, / sharpen; metuo, I fear ;
also stermuJ, / sneeze, form the Perfect in -u-I after the analogy of pri-
mary verbs, and the formation in -ul gradually extended in Latin.
III. THE SUPINE STEM.
135. I- Supine in -turn, Perfect Passive Participle in -tus: The
stems are formed by the addition of -tu or -to
(a) To the stem as it appears in the Present Infinitive active. Here
belong most verbs of the first and fourth conjugations, and those verbs
of the second conjugation that are mentioned in 124 : ama-tum, dSl6-
tum, audl-ttun. Those verbs of the second conjugation which form
Perfect in -nl, form the Supine stem by weakening the thematic vowel
e to i, and adding -tu, -to, except cgnsS-re, to deem, doce-re, to teach,
mlscS-re, to mix, ten6-re, to hold, torrS-re, to scorch, which omit the the-
matic vowel, and form censum, doctum, mlxtum, (tentum), tostum.
(b) To the unstrengthened stem. Here belong most verbs of the
third conjugation and the five verbs of the second just given, with
sporadic forms in the other conjugations : cap-turn (capi5, I take),
rep-turn (repo, I creep), die-turn (dlco, I say), fac-tum (faciS, I do).
In combinations of -t- with a dental, assimilation took place, giving
usually ss after a short vowel and s after a long vowel : scissum (scindC,
I cleave), caesura (caedo, I fell). On the analogy of this and under the
influence often of Perfect in -si, we find -s- also in some other stems :
1. In stems with a guttural characteristic ; as, fix-urn (figo, I fix) ; often with a
preceding liquid : mersum (mergS, / dip ; Pf . mersi) ; tersum (tergeS, / wipe ;
Pf . tersl) ; par sum < parco, I spare ; Pf. parsl, old) ; spar-sum (sparg5, / sprinkle ;
Pf. sparsl) ; mul-sum (mulgeS, 1 milk ; Pf. mul-sl) ; but far-turn (farci5, / stuff;
Pf . farsl) ; tortum (torqueS, / twist ; Pf . torsi) ; indul-tum (rare and post-classical,
from indulged^ I indulge; Pf. indulsl).
2. In one with a labial characteristic : lap-sum (labor, I slip).
3. In some stems with characteristic s ; as, cSnsum (cSnseo, / deem ; see I. a.) ;
haesum (haereo, I stick) ; plnsum (plnso, I pound).
4. In some stems with a nasal characteristic : pressum (premS, f press ; Pf . pressl ' ;
mansion (maneo, I remain ; Pf. mansl).
5. In stems where 11, IT has arisen by assimilation : pulsum ( pello, 7 drive) ;
falsum (fallo, /falsify) ; vulsum ivello, I pluck) ; cursum (currO, Iran) ; versum
tverrS, / sweep).
CHANGE OF CONJUGATION. 95
IT. FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE IN -turns. — The same changes occur
in the stem as are found in the case of the Supine.
1. In some stems ending in -u a thematic vowel i is inserted ; as
arguiturus (arguere, to prove); luiturus (luere, to loose); abnuiturus
(abnuere, to deny) ; ruiturus (ruere, to rush) ; eruiturus (8ruere, to root
out) ; fruituras (frui, to enjoy).
2. Some Future Participles are found without corresponding Per-
feet : caliturus (calere, to be warm) ; cariturus (cargre, to lack) ; doliturus
(dol6re, to grieve) ; iaciturus (iacgre, to lie) ; pariturus (parere, to obey) ;
valiturus (valSre, to be well).
3. Irregular are : agn5turus, agniturus (agnoscere, to know well);
dlsciturus (discere, to learn) ; hausurus, haustiirus (haurlre, to drain) ;
nisurus (niti, to lean) ; moriturus (morl, to die) ; nosciturus (nSscere, to
know) ; oriturus (orirl, to arise) ; pariturus (parere, to bear).
Change of Conjugation.
136. A change of Conjugation occurs in verbs which show
a long thematic vowel in the Present stem, but not in the
Perfect stem, or the reverse.
1. Verbs with Perfect and Supine formed regularly, according to
the third conjugation, have the Present stem formed according to one
of the other three :
auge-o,
senti-o,
saepi-o,
veni-5,
vide-o,
vinci-5,
2. Verbs with Perfect and Supine formed according to the first,
second, or fourth conjugations, have the Present stem formed according
to the third, in consequence of strengthening :
ster-n-6, ster-ne-re, stra-vl, stra-tum, to strew.
cre-sc-o, cr5-sce-re, crS-vI, cr5-tum, to grow.
li-n-o, line-re, 16-vI (11-vP, li-tum, to smear.
3. Verbs with the Present formed regularly according to the third
conjugation, have the Perfect and Supine formed according to (a) the
second, or (b) the fourth conjugation :
(a) accumbere, to recline, fremere, to rage, gemere, to groan, glgnere, to beget,
molere, to grind, strepere, to resound, vomere, to vomit, form Perfect in -ul, Supine
in -itum.
alere, to nourish, colere, to cultivate, consulere, to consult, frendere, to show the
teeth, occulere, to conceal, rapere, to snatch, and its compounds form Perfect in -ul,
Supine in -turn (-sum), For ali-tus, see 142, 3.
auge-re,
aux-1,
auc-tum,
to increase.
sentl-re,
sen-si,
sen-sum,
tofeel.
saepi-re,
saep-sl,
saep-tum,
to hedge about.
venl-re,
vSn-I,
ven-tum,
to come.
vidS-re,
vld-I,
vi-sum,
to see.
vincl-re,
vinx-X,
vine-turn,
to bind.
go LIST OF VERBS
COmpescere, to check, con-cinere, to sing together, and other compounds of canere,
to sing, excellere, to excel, stertere, to snore, tremere, to tremble, form Perfect in
-Hi, but no Supine.
(&) arcessere, to summon, incessere, to enter, cupere, to desire, petere, to seek,
quaerere, to search, and its compounds, rudere, to roar, sapere, to savor, form Per-
fect in -IvI, Supine in -itum.
4. Stems vary among the first, second, and fourth conjugations.
(a) Verbs with the Present formed according to the first, and Per-
fect and Supine according to the second conjugation •
crepare, to crackle, cubare, to lie, domare, to conquer, micare, to flash,
plicare, to fold, sonar e, to sound, tonare, to thunder, vetare, to forbid, with
Perfect in -ul, Supine in -itum :
fricare, to rub, necare, to kill, secare, to cut, with Perfect in -ui,
Supine in -turn (but participles in atus are occasional, principally in later
Latin).
(b) Verbs with Present formed according to fourth, and Perfect and
Supine according to the second : amiclre, to wrap, aperlre, to open,
operlre, to cover, sallre, to leap, and compounds.
(c) Of the second and fourth conjugations is cie-o (ci-o), ciS-re (cl-re),
civl, citum (ci-tum), to stir up, and its compounds ; while pot5, potare, to
drink, forms Sup. po-tum or po-tatum, and Fut. Part, po-turus or
pota-turus.
5. dare, to give, and stare, to stand, pass over to the third conjuga-
tion in the Perfect, in consequence of reduplication.
LIST OF VERBS ACCORDING TO THE PER-
FECT FORM.
PERFECT : -vl ; SUPINE : -turn.
137. Stem class :
(a) Verbs of first and fourth conjugations, except those mentioned
in 136, 4. Irregular in Supine is
sepeli-o, sepeli-re, sepeli-vl, sepul-tum, to bury.
(b) In the second conjugation :
dele-o, d5l5-re, dSlS-vI, dele-turn, to destroy.
fle-o, fle-re, fl§-vl, fle-tum, to weep.
ne-o, ne-re, ne-vi, n5-tum, to spin.
-ole-5 (ab-, in-), -ol6-re, -ole-vl, to grmc.
These compounds form Supine in itum ; abolitum, inolitus.
-ple5, -pie-re, pis-vl, pl6-tum, tojm.
So the compounds with com-, in-, ex-, re-, sup-.
vie-6, vie-re, vie-tus, to plait.
Irregular is
cie-6(ci-8), ciS-re (clre), cl-vl, cl-tum (ci-tum), to stir vp.
In the compounds we find the Participles concitus or concitus, percitus, excltus
or excitus, but accltus.
ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. 97
(c) In the third conjugation :
arcess-o, arcesse-re, arcessi-vi, arcessl-tum, to send for.
So, too, lacess-o, / tease, capess-o, / lay hold of. In early Latin we often find
accerso, the relation of which to arcesso is variously explained. The fonns arcesslri,
and later arcessiretur, from the fourth conjugation, also occur.
in-cess-6, in-cesse-re, in-cessi-vl (cessi), to attack.
So faccss-o, I cause, make off.
pet-o, pete-re, peti-vl, petl-tum, to seek (fly at).
quaer-o, quaere-re, quaesi-vi, quaesl-tum, to seek.
con-quir-o, con-quire-re, conquisl-vl, con-quisl-tum, to hunt up.
So other compounds of -quiro (quaero).
rud-o, rude-re, rudl-vl, rudl-tum, to roar.
ter-o, tere-re, trl-vl, trl-tum, to rub.
TIB., i. 4,48, has at-teruisse,.aud APULEIUS has similar forms.
138. Reduplicated class :
ser-o, sere-re, sg-vl, sa-tum, to sow.
So consero, but with Sup. con-situm.
139. Nasal class:
A. li-n-5, li-ne-re, lg-vl, li-tum, to besmear.
So compounds of Iin5. Pf • li-vl is rare.
si-n-6, si-ne-re, si-vi, si-tum, to let.
So dS-sino, Heave off, and in early Latin, pono (= po-sino), I put.
B. cer-n-o, cer-ne-re, crg-vl, (crg-tum), to separate.
So dScerno, / decide.
sper-n-o, sper-ne-re, spr5-vl, spr6-tum, to despise.
ster-n-o, ster-ne-re, stra-vl, stra-tum, tos/rew.
140. Inchoative class :
invetera-sc-o, invetera-sce-re, invetera-vl, invetera-tum, to grow old.
pa-sc-o, pa-sce-re, pa-vl, pas-turn, to graze (trans.).
vespera-sc-o, vespera-sce-re, vespera-vi, to become evening.
So advesperasco.
cre-sc-6, cr6-sce-re, cr6-vl, crg-tum, to grow.
So the compounds.
con-cupi-sc-o, -cupl-sce-re, -cupi-vl, -cupl-tum, to Ion gf 01:
ob-dormi-sc-o, -dorml-sce-re, -dormi-vl, -dorml-tum, to fall asleep.
So condormisco, 6dormlsc6.
ex-ol6-sc-o, -ol6-sce-re, -ol5-vl, -o!6-tum, to get one's growth.
So ob-solSsc5, 1 grow old. But ab-olesco, I disappear, has abolitum ; co-alesco,
I rin»i' together, co-alitum; acl-olesco, I grow up, ad-ultum in the Sup.; and
inolescS lacks the Supine.
quig-sc-5, quiS-sce-re, quiS-vI, quie-tum, forest.
8ci-sc-o, scl-sce-re, scl-vl, sci-tum, to decree,
So ad-8Cisco, / take on.
1
98 LIST OF VERBS
SU-6SC-5, suS-sce-re, su6-vl, sue-tum, to accustom one's self,
So compounds as-, con-, de-, man-.
(g)no-sc-o, no-sce-re, no-vl, (no-turn), to know.
So ignosco, / pardon ; but co-gn5sco, / recognise, and other compounds of nosco,
have Sup. in -ittun.
re-sip-isc-6, -sipl-sce-re, -sipl-vl, to come to otters senses.
141. 1-class:
cupi-o, cupe-re, cupl-vi, cupi-tum, to desire.
sapi-o, sape-re, sapl-vl (-ui\ to have a flavor.
PEEFECT : -ui ; SUPINE : (i)tum.
142. Stem class :
1. The majority of the verbs of the second conjugation; see 134, 1, b,
and 135, a. But
sorbe-6, sorbS-re, sorb-ul, to tup vj>.
Pf . sorp-si occurs iii VAL. MAX. and LUCAN.
2. Of the first conjugation :
crep-5, crepa-re, crep-ul, crepi-tum, to raffle.
So the compounds, but in early and late Latin the regular fornig of dis-creparo
and in-crepare are occasional.
cub-5, cuba-re, cub-ul, cubi-tiun, to lie.
Occasional regular forms in post-Ciceronian Latin.
clom-o, doma-re, doni-ui, domi-tum, to tame.
fric-5, frica-re, fric-ul, fric-tum (-a-tum), to rub.
Occasionally in early and more often in post-classical Latin, the regular forms are
found in the compounds ; so always -frica-turus.
mic-o, mica-re, mic-ul, to quiver, flash,
But di-micare, toflght (onf), is regular, except occasionally in OVID.
nec-5, neca-re, neca-vi (nec-ui rare), neca-tum, to kill.
The compound 5neca-re, to kill off, has gnecavi in early Lathi, otherwise gnecul
(rare) ; and enectus (but PLIK. MAI., gnecatus '.
plic-5, plica-re, (plica- vl), plici-tum, to fold.
The simple forms of plicare are rare. The compounds ap-, com-, ex-, im-, vary
between -avl and -nl in the Pf., and -atum and -itum in the Sup. ; but CICERO uses
always applicavi, application; complicavl, complicatom; and usually expli-
cavl, always explicatum; always implicatum ; circiimplicare is always regular ;
forms of replicare are rare.
sec-Q, seca-re, sec-ul, sec-turn, to ait.
Regular forms are early, late, and rare.
son-o, sona-re, son-ui, soni-tum, to sound.
But regularly sonatiirus. Regular forms are late. In early Latin the forms sonere,
sonit, sonunt, resonit, resonunt, show that the simple verb was sonere.
ton-6, tona-re, ton-ul, to thunder.
But at-tonitus aud intonatus (Hon., Epod. 2, 51).
ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.
99
vet-5, veta-re, vet-ul,
But PERSIUS (5, 90) uses veta-vi.
veti-tum,
toforbid.
3. Of the third conjugation :
frem-6, freme-re,
frem-ul,
to roar, rage.
gem-o, geme-re,
gem-ui,
to groan.
vom-o, vome-re,
vom-ul,
vomi-tum,
to vomit.
al-o, ale-re, al-ul,
Participle ali-tus occurs from LIVY on.
al-tnm,
to nourish.
col-o, cole-re,
col-ul,
cul-tum,
to cultivate.
con-cin-o, -cine-re,
So occinere, praecinere.
-cin-ui,
to sing together.
c5n-sul-5, c5n-sule-re,
con-sul-ul,
con-sul-tum,
to consult.
deps-6, depse-re,
deps-ul,
deps-tus,
to knead.
mol-o, mole-re,
mol-ui,
moli-tum,
to grind.
occul-o, occule-re,
occul-ui,
occul-tum,
to conceal.
pins-o, plnse-re,
plns-ui,
pinsi-tum,
to pound.
Sup. also pinsum, plstum. Collateral forms of plso, plsere, are early and rare ;
so also is plnslbant.
ser-o, sere-re, (ser-tum), to string (out).
Common in compounds : as, desero, dgserere, dfiserui, dSsertum, to desert.
The same forms are found occasionally in compounds of serere, to sow (138), but not
in classical Latin.
stert-5, sterte-re, stert-ul,
strep-6, strepe-re, strep-ul,
tex-o, texe-re, tex-ul, tex-tum,
Irregular are
met-6, mete-re, mess-ul, mes-sum,
vol-o, vel-le, vol-ui,
So n51o, malo ; see 174.
4. In the fourth conjugation :
amici-o, amicl-re, amic-ui (amixi), amic-tum,
aperi-6, aperi-re, aper-ul, aper-tum,
operi-o, operl-re, oper-ul, oper-tum,
sali-o, sali-re, sal-ul, sal-turn,
to snore.
(strepi-tum), to make a din.
to weave.
to mow.
to ivish.
to clothe,
to open,
to cover up.
to leap.
The regular Perfects sallvl, salil, are found iu compounds, but usually in post-
classical writers, and often syncopated.
143. Reduplicated class :
sji-gn-o (GEN-), gl-gne-re, gen-ul, geni-tum, to beget.
Early Latin has the Present forms genit, genunt, genat, genitur, genuntur,
^enendi, genl.
100
LIST OF VERBS
144. Nasal class :
frend-o, frende-re, frS-sum, frSs-sum, to gnash.
Also in the form frende-o, frende-re.
ac-cumb-6, -cumbe-re, cub-ui, cubi-ttun, to lie down.
So also the compounds con-, dis-, in- ; but re-cumbo lacks the Supine.
ex-cell-o, -celle-re, (cell-ul), (cel-sus\ to surpass.
But per-cellere, tobeat down, has Pf . per-cull, Sup. per-culsum. Excelluerunt
is found in GELL. xiv. 3, 7, and in AUGUSTINE ; otherwise forms of Pf. and Sup. do
not occur.
145. The Inchoative class :
dispeac-o, dispesce-re, dispesc-ui,
So compescere, to check.
/,, i,t i, *,*,-.
A large number of verbs are formed from verbs of the second con-
jugation, or from substantives or adjectives, and take Pf. in -ul; as,
oo-alesc-o,
See 140.
alesce-re,
al-ui,
e-vanesc-o,
vanesce-re,
van-Til,
con-valesc-6,
valesce-re,
val-ui,
in-gemisc-o,
gemlsce-re,
gem-ul,
notesc-o,
notesce-re,
not-ul,
incalesc-o,
incalesce-re,
incal-ui.
146. The
I-class :
rapi-o,
cor-ripio,
rape-re,
ripe-re,
rap-Hi,
rip-ul,
ali-tum,
vali-tum,
rap-ttun,
rep- turn,
to grow together.
to disappear,
to get well,
to sigh .
to become known,
to get warm.
to snatch,
to seize.
So other compounds. In early Latin, surripere syncopates some of its forms, as
surpuit, surpere ; surpuerat occurs in HOK. ; aoristic forms, as rapsit, surrepsit,
belong also to the early period. 131, 4, b. 2.
PERFECT: -si; SUPINE: -turn, -sum.
147. Stem class :
i. In the second conjugation :
iube-6, iube-re,
On sorbeo see 142, 1.
arde-o,
ride-o,
haere-o,
mane-o,
suade-o,
ard6-re,
ride-re,
haerS-re,
mane-re,
suadS-re,
ins-si,
ar-sl,
ri-sl,
hae-sl,
man-si,
sua-si,
ius-sum,
ar-stun,
rl-sum,
'hae-suni1,
man-sum,
sua-sum,
With dental dropped before ending of Pf . and Supine.
auge-5, auge-re, auxi, auc-tum,
frige-o, frigg-re, (frixl),
luce-o. lucS-re, luxl,
to order.
to be on fire,
to laugh (at),
to stick (to),
to remain,
to counsel.
to cause to wax-
to be chilled,
to give light.
ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.
101
luge-6, luge-re, luxl, to be in mourning.
alge-o, algg-re, al-sl, to freeze.
fulge-o, fulge-re, ful-sl, to glow.
In early Latin, forms of the third conjugation occur : fulgit, fulgere, effulgero
(VERG., A, vm. 677).
indulge-o, indulg8-re, indul-si,
mulce-6, mulce-re, mul-si,
Rarely mulc-tus in compounds.
mulge-o, mulg6-re, mul-si,
terge-o, terge-re, ter-sl,
(indul-tum),
mul-sum,
to give way.
to stroke.
mul-sumXctum), tomUk.
ter-sum, to wipe.
Forms of the third conjugation : tergit, tergitur, terguntur, are occasionally
found ; and so too in some late compounds. VARRO has tertus.
torque-o, torqu6-re, tor-si,
turge-o, turg6-re, tur-sl,
urge-6, urge-re, ur-sl,
co-nive-5 (gnigv), -nlve-re, -nixl (IvI),
2. In the third conjugation :
tor-turn,
to twist,
to swell,
to press,
to close the eyes.
carp-5, carpe-re,
de-cerp-o, de-cerpe-re,
carp-si, carp-turn,
de-cerp-sl, de-cerp-tum,
to pluck,
to pluck off.
clep-6, clepe-re,
Rare and ante-classic.
clep-si (clep-1), clep-tum,
tofilch.
nub-o, nube-re,
imp-si, nup-tum,
to put on a '
(as a bride).
re>5, repe-re,
rep-si, rep-tum,
to creep.
scalp-o, scalpe-re,
scalp-si, scalp-turn,
to scrape.
scrlb-o, scribe-re,
scrip-si, scrip-turn,
to write.
sculp- 5, sculpe-re,
sculp-sl, sculp-tum,
to chisel.
serp-6, serpe-re,
serp-sl, serp-tum,
to creep.
prem-5 (-primo), preme-re,
pres-si, pres-sum,
to press.
Some compounds of emo, I take, buy, have Pf. in -si, Sup. in -turn,
before which a euphonic p developes :
c5m-o, come-re,
dem-6, deme-re,
prom-o, prome-re,
sum-6, sume-re,
On contemn-o see 149, c.
dlc-o, dice-re,
c5m-p-si,
dem-p-si,
prom-p-sl,
sum-p-si,
com-p-tum,
dem-p-tum,
prom-p-tum,
sum-p-tum,
to adorn,
to take away,
to take out.
to take.
dixi ' die-si ', die-turn,
Impv. die, see 130, 5. Occasionally in old Latin dicSbo for Future.
to say.
duxi,
due-turn,
duc-o, diice-re,
Imperative due, see 130, 5.
fig-o, fige-re, fixi, fixum,
Part. fictUS for fixus is occasional in early Latin.
-fllg-6(con-, af-,in-), -fllge-re, -flixi, -flic-turn,
Simple verb is found occasionally in early Latin.
frIg-6, frige-re, frlxi, flic-turn,
to lead.
tofasten.
to strike.
to parch.
IO2
LIST OF VERBS
sug-o, suge-re, suxi,
Put. exsugebo is found in PLAUT., Ep. 188.
merg-6,
merge-re,
mer-sl,
sparg-5, sparge-re, spar-si,
con-sperg-o, con-sperge-re, con-sper-si,
coqu-5, coque-re,
[-lig-5 aeg-), -lige-re,
dl-lig-6, dl-lige-re,
intelligo, or
inteUego, intellege-re,
negligo, or
neg-leg-6, neg-lege-re,
coxi,
-16x1,
dl-lexl,
intel-lexl,
suc-tum,
mer-sum,
spar-sum,
con-sper-sum,
coc-tum,
-lec-tum.]
dil6c-tum,
to suck.
to plunge.
to strew,
to besprinkle.
to cook.
to love.
intel-lgc-tum, to understand.
neg-lSxI, neg-16c-tum, to neglect.
Other compounds have legl. SALL., J. 40, 1, has negl6gisset.
reg-o, rege-re, r6xl, rSc-tum,
di-rig-5, dl-rige-re, dl-rSxI, di-rec-tum,
per-g-6, per-ge-re, per-rSxi, per-r6c-tum,
su-rg-o, su-rge-re, sur-r6xl, sur-r6c-tum,
But expergo formed expergitus in carry and late Latin.
teg-6, tege-re, t6xl,
claud-o, claude-re, clau-sl,
con-, ex-clud-5, ex-clude-re, ex-clu-sl,
Early Latin shows also cliido, cludere.
laed-5,
col-lid-o,
laede-re,
col-lide-re,
lae-si,
col-11-si,
lud-5, lude-re, lu-sl,
plaud-o ( ap-plaud-o), plaude-re, plau-si,
ex-plOd-5, ex-plode-re, ex-plo-sl,
rad-6, rade-re, ra-sl,
rCd-5, r5de-re, rS-sl,
trud-5, trude-re, tru-sl,
vad-5 (in-, S-), -vade-re, -va-sl,
ced-o, cede-re, ces-sl,
quati-6, quate-re, (quas-si),
con-cutifi (per-, ex-), con-cute-re, con-cus-si,
mitt-6,
dI-vid-5,
ur-5,
com-bur-5,
ger-o,
flu-5 (flugv-),
stru-o (strugv-),
trah-o (tragh-),
veh-6 (vegh),
vlv-o (vigv-),
mitte-re, mi-si,
dl-vide-re, di-vl-si,
tire-re, us-sl,
com-bure-re, com-bus-si,
gere-re,
flue-re,
strue-re,
trahe-re,
vehe-re,
vlve-re,
ges-si,
fluxi,
struxi,
traxi,
vexl,
vlxl,
tSc-tum,
clau-sum,
ex-clu-sum,
lae-sum,
col-ll-sum,
lu-sum,
plau-sum,
ex-plo-sum,
ra-sum,
r5-sum,
tru-sum,
-va-sum,
ces-sum,
quas-sum
to keep right,
to guide,
to go on.
to rise up.
to cover.
to shut.
to shut up, out.
to harm.
to strike together,
to play.
to clap,
to hoot off.
to scratch.
to gnaw.
to push.
to go.
to give way,
to shake.
con-cus-sum, to shatter.
mis-sum, to send.
di-vi-sum, to part.
us-tum, to burn.
com-bus-tum, to burn up.
ges-tum,
(flux-us),
struc-tum,
trac-tum,
vec-tum,
vic-tuin,
to carry,
to flow,
to build,
to drag.
to carry.
to live,
ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.
103
148. Tlie T-class:
flect-6,
flecte-re, flexl, flexuni,
tf> bend.
nect-6,
The Pf . forms :
necte-re, nexl (nexui), nexum,
in-nexui (VERG., A. v., 435).
to knot.
pect-5,
pecte-re, pexl, pexum,
to comb.
plect-o,
plecte-re, (plexl), plexum,
to plait.
pect-5, pecte-re,
pexl,
plect-o, plecte-re,
(plexl),
149. The Nasal class :
(a) Supine without N :
fing-6, finge-re,
finxi,
ming-o, minge-re,
minxl,
ping-S, pinge-re,
pinxi,
string-o, stringe-re,
strinxi,
(b) Supine with N :
ang-o, ange-re,
anxi,
cing-o, cinge-re,
cinxi,
e"-mung-o, 6-munge-re,
e-munxi,
iung-o, iunge-re,
iunxl,
ling-5, linge-re,
linxi,
ning-o, ninge-re,
ninxl,
pang-5, pange-re,
panxi,
finxi,
fic-tum,
toform.
minxl,
mic-tum,
to urinate.
pinxi,
pic-turn,
to paint.
strinxi,
stric-tum,
to draw tight.
to throttle, vex.
cine-turn, to gird.
8-munc-tum, to wipe the nose.
iunc-tum, to yoke, join.
line-turn, to lick.
to snow.
pane- turn, to drive in.
Perfect also p6gf, and Supine pactum. Compare 135 and paclscor, 165.
plang-o, plange-re, planxl, plane-turn, to smite.
-stingu-o, -stingue-re, -stinxl, -stinc-tum, to put out.
So the compounds ex-, dis-, re- ; the simple verb is ante-classic.
ting-o (tingu-Q), ting(u)e-re, tinxi, tinc-tum, to wet, dye.
ung-o (ungu-5), ung(u)e-re, unxi, unc-tum, to anoint.
(c) tem-n-o (rare) and its compounds form the Pf. with a euphonic p:
con-tem-n-o, -temne-re, -tem-p-si, -tem-p-tum, to despise.
150. The I-class :
i. In the third conjugation :
f-lici-5 (LAC), lice-re, -lexl, -lec-tum], to lure.
pel-lici-5, pel-lice-re, pel-lexl, pel-lec-tum, to allure.
•So allicere, illicere, which, however, have early Pf. in -ui, as does pellicere also.
But 6-licere has -ul regularly in classical times, and 6-lexi only later.
[-spici-5 (SPEC), -spice-re, -spexi, -spec-tuml, to peer.
per-spici-5, per-spice-re, per-spexl, per-spec-tum, to see through.
So the compounds with ad-, con-, d6-, in-0
IO4
LIST OF VERBS
2. In the fourth conjugation :
saepi-6, saepl-re,
sanci-o, sancl-re,
The Sup. sanci-tum is rare.
vinci-o, vinci-re,
farci-6 (-ferci-o\ farcl-re,
fulci-o, fulcl-re,
sarci-o, sarci-re,
senti-6, sentl-re,
hauri-6, haurl-re,
VERG., A. iv., 383, has hausurus. Early Latin shows haurfbant (Lucn.) and
haurierint ; hauriturus is very late.
saep-si,
saep-tum,
to hedge in.
sauxi,
sanc-tum.
to hallow.
vinxl,
vine-turn,
to bind.
far-si,
far-turn,
to stuff.
ful-sl,
ful-tum,
to prop.
sar-si,
sar-tum,
to patch.
sen-si.
sen-sum,
tofeel.
hau-sl,
haus-tum,
to drain.
rauci-o, raucl-re,
This verb is very rare.
rau-si,
to be hoarse.
PERFECT : -1 WITH REDUPLICATION ; SUPINE : -sum, -turn.
151, In theirs/ conjugation :
I. d-6, da-re, ded-i, da-turn, to give, jmt, do.
Everywhere a, except in das, thou givest, and dS, give thou.
1. Like d5, are conjugated the compounds with dissyllabic words, such as : circum-
d-5, 1 surround ; satis-do, I give bail ; pessum-do, I ruin ; v6num-do, I sell ; thus :
circum-d-6, circum-da-re, circum-de-di, circum-da-tum, to surround.
2. The compounds of da-re with monosyllabic words pass over wholly into the
Third Conjugation.
ab-d-5, ab-de-re, ab-did-i, ab-di-tum, to put away.
ad-d-o, ad-de-re, ad-did-i, ad-di-tum, to put to.
con-d-5, con-de-re, con-did-1, con-di-tum, to put up (found).
abs-con-do, abs-con-de-re, abs-con-d-i, abs-con-di-tum, to put far away.
Pf. abscondidl is found in PL., Mer. 360, then not until late Latin.
cr6-d-o,
cr5-de-re,
cre-did-1,
crS-di-tum,
to put faith.
dg-d-5,
dg-de-re,
de-did-1,
de-di-tum,
to give up.
e-d-o,
6-de-re,
S-did-I,
e-di-tum,
to put out.
in-d-o,
in-de-re,
in-did-I,
in-di-tum,
to put in.
per-d-o,
per-de-re,
per-did-I,
per-di-tum,
to fordo (ruin).
pr5-d-o,
pro-de-re,
pro-did-i,
pr6-di-tum,
to betray.
red-d-o,
red-de-re,
red-did-i,
red-di-tum,
to give back.
tra-d-o,
tra-de-re,
tra-did-1,
tra-di-tum,
to give over.
v6n-d-o,
v6n-de-re,
ven-did-1,
v6n-di-tum,
to put up to sale.
NOTE. — In early Latin dare formed the Pr. Subjv., also duim. So in some of ita
compounds, as perduim. See 130, 4.
2. Bt-o, sta-re, stet-i, (sta-tii-rus^, to stand.
So the compounds :
ad-st-o,
con-st-6,
ad-sta-re,
ccn-sta-re,
ad-stit-I,
c5n-stit-I,
to stand by.
to standfast.
ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. lOg
In-st-o, in-sta-re, m-stit-I, to stand upm.
ob-st-o, ob-sta-re, ob-stit-I, to stand out
against.
per-st-o, per-sta-re, per-stit-1, to stand finn.
prae-st-o, prae-sta-re, prae-stit-f, to stand ahead.
re-st-o, re-sta-re, re-stit-1, to stand over.
dl-st-o, dl-sta-re, to stand apart.
ex-st-o, ex-sta-re, to stand out.
All compounds of stare with dissyllabic prepositions have, however, -steti in the
Perfect, as : ante-sto, / am superior ; inter-sto, / am between ; super-sto, / stand
vpon ; thus :
circum-st-o, circum-sta-re, circum-stet-i, to stand round.
NOTE.— Compare sisto and its compounds ; 154, i.
152. In the second conjugation :
morde-o, mordS-re, mo-mord-1, mor-sum, to bite.
pende-o, pendS-re, pe-pend-I, to hang (intr.).
sponde-5, sponde-re, spo-pond-i, spon-sum, to pledge oneself '.
Compounds omit the reduplication, but PLAUT. shows also de-spo-pondisse and
de-spo-ponderas.
tonde-o, tondS-re, to-tond-i, ton-sum, to shear.
153. In the third conjugation :
(a) Stem class.
Reduplication lost in the compounds :
cad-6, cade-re, ce-cid-I, ca-sum, tofall.
oc-cid-o, oc-cide-re, oc-cid-i, oc-ca-sum, to perish.
re-cidere sometimes forms reccidl, as well as recidl, in the Perfect.
caed-6, caede-re, ce-cld-i, cae-sum, to/ell.
oc-cld-6, oc-cide-re, oc-cld-i, oc-cl-sum, to kill.
can-o, cane-re, ce-cin-i, (can-turn), to sing.
Compounds form the Pf . in -ui. For (cantum), cantatum was used.
parc-o, parce-re, pe-perc-i (par-si), (par-sums), to spare.
com-parco (-perco), com-parce-re, com-pars-J, com-par-sum, to save.
pars! is common in early Latin, and is the only form used by PLAUTUS. Early
Latin shows rarely parcui. TER. uses compersit.
154. (b) Reduplicated class :
i. sisto (— si-st-o), as a simple verb, has the transitive meaning,
7 (cause to) stand, but in its compounds, the intransitive meaning, /
stand. Compare sto, I stand, and its compounds (151) :
sist-o, siste-re, (stit-I), sta-tum, to (cause to)
stand.
So the compounds :
con-sist-o, con -siste-re, c5n-stit-I, con-sti-tum, to come to a stand,
d§-sist-o (ab-), dS-siste-re, d6-stit-l, de-sti-tum, to stand off.
io6
LIST OF VERBS
ex-sist-6,
ex-siste-re,
ex-stit-i,
ex-sti-tum,
to stand up.
ob-sist-6,
ob-siste-re,
ob-stit-i,
ob-sti-tum,
to take a stand
against.
re-sist-6,
re-siste-re,
re-stit-1,
re-sti-tum,
to withstand.
ad-sist-o,
ad-siste-re,
ad-stit-i,
—
to stand near.
in-sist-5,
in-siste-re,
In-stit-I,
—
to stand upon.
circum-sist-6,
circum-siste-re,
circum-stet-i,
to take a stand
round.
2. bi-b5,
bi-be-re,
bi-bl,
(bi-bi-tus),
to drink.
No Supine.
The Pf. Part, is late.
155. (c) Nasal class:
fall-6, falle-re,
fal-sum,
to cheat.
fe-fell-I,
The compound refellO has the Perfect refelll, and lacks Supine.
pell-6, pelle-re, pe-pul-I, pul-sum, to push, drive back.
repello loses the reduplicating vowel in Pf . reppull.
toll-6, tolle-re, to lift up.
Pf. and Sup. are formed sus-tull (from reduplicated Pf. tetull, 171, N. 1) and sub-
latum (for t'la-tum) ; a recent view makes su-stull from (s)tollS.
(pang-5), (pange-re), pe-pig-i, pac-tum, to drive a bargain.
The Pr. forms are supplied by paciscor, 165. The Pf . pegl, rare in the simple
form, is regular in the compounds com-, im-, op-. See 149, b.
tang-6 (TAG), tange-re,
at-ting-6, at-tinge-re,
So with other compounds.
pend-o, pende-re,
tend-5, tende-re,
te-tig-I,
at-tig-i,
tac-tum,
at-tac-tum,
to touch.
to border upon.
pe-pend-i, pen-sum, to hang (trans.).
te-tend-i, ten-sura and -turn, to stretch.
ex-tend-6, ex-tende-re ex-tend-I, ex-t6n-sum and -turn, to stretch out.
os-tend-S, os-tende-re, os-tend-i, os-tSn-sum (-tus), to stretch at, sliow.
The compounds prefer the Sup. in -turn; so always attentus, contentus, usually
distentus and iutentus.
pung-5, punge-re, pu-pug-I, punc-tum, to prick.
inter-puugo, inter-puuge-re, inter-punxi, inter-punc-tum, to place points
between.
tund-o, tunde-re, tu-tud-I, tun-sum, tu-sum, to thump.
Simple form has usually tunsus in the Participle ; in the compounds more often
tusus. The reduplicating vowel is lost in rettudl.
curr-6, curre-re, cu-curr-I, cur-sum, to run.
The compounds vary in their use of the reduplication ; praecurrere always has
the reduplication, succurrere always omits it ; other compounds vary. See 134, HI.
156.
Inchoative class :
disco (= di-d(e)c-sc5), dlsce-re, di-dic-I, to learn.
A late form is Fut. Part, dlscitttrus. Compounds retain reduplication. See 134, in.
pOsc-o (= porc-sc5), posce-re,
Compounds retain the reduplication.
po-posc-1, —
See 134, in.
to claim.
157. (e) Thel-class:
pari-5, pare-re, pe-per-i, par-turn (pariturus), to briny forth,
The compounds drop the reduplication and form the Inf. in -Ire. But reperire,
to find, forms its Pf., repperl, with omission of the vowel of reduplication.
ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. IQ?
PERFECT: -I; SUPINE: -turn, -sum.
158. In the first conjugation :
iuv-6, iuva-re, iuv-I, iu-tum (iuvaturus), to help.
ad-iuv-5, -iuva-re, -iuv-1, -iu-tum (-iu-turus), to standby as aid.
(lav-6), (lav-ere), lav-I, lau-tum (lo-tum), to wash.
lav-o, lava-re, (lava-vi), lava-turn, to wash.
The Present forms of lavere belong principally to early Latin, with occasional
forms in Augustan poets and late writers ; lautum and iQtum are both used in class-
ical times ; but lautum belongs rather to early, lotum to post-classical Latin. The
form lavatum is early and poetical.
159. In the second conjugation :
cave-o, cavS-re, cav-I, cau-tum, to take heed.
fave-o, fav6-re, fav-I, fau-tum, to be well-disposed,
ferve-o (o), ferv6-re (ere), ferv-I (ferb-ul), to seethe.
The Pr. forms of the third conjugation belong to early Latin and the poets. The
Pf . in -ul is post-Ciceronian.
fove-o, fovB-re, f5v-I, f5-tum, to keep warm.
move-6, mov5-re, mov-1, mo-tum, to move.
pave-o, pav6-re, pav-1, to quake (with fear).
prande-o, prand5-re, prand-i, pran-sum, to breakfast.
sede-6, sedS-re, sSd-i, ses-sum, to sit.
stride-o (-d5), strldg-re(-e-re), strld-I, to whistle, screech.
vove-o, vovS-re, vov-1, vo-tum, to now.
The Present forms of the third conjugation belong almost entirely to Augustan poets
and later writers.
vide-o, vide-re, vld-I, vl-sum, to see.
160. In the third conjugation :
With long vowel in the Perfect.
i. The Stem, class:
ag-o, age-re, Sg-I, ac-tum, to do, drive.
co-g-5, c5-ge-re, co-eg-1, co-ac-tum, to compel.
dS-g-o, d6-ge-re, to pass (time).
red-ig-6, red-ige-re, red-6g-i, red-ac-tum, to bring back.
em-0,^ eme-re, em-1, emp-tum, to take, to buy.
inte'r-im-6, -ime-re, -em-I, -emp-tum, to make aivay with.
CO-em-5, / buy up, is conjugated like em-0. But the compounds with ad-, ex-,
inter-, red-, take -im-o. So, too, dir-im-5, / sever.
ed-6, ede-re, 8d-I, S-sum, to eat.
NOTE.— In agere, edere, emere, the reduplication has coalesced with the root ; as,
6gl = eagl.
cud-o, cude-re, (cQd-I), (cu-sum), to hammer.
The Pf. and Sup. occur in compounds only.
io8
LIST OF VERBS
leg-o, lege-re, l^g-1, iSc-trun, to pick up, read.
col-lig-6, col-lige-re, col-leg-i, col-lgc-tum. to gather.
So the other compounds, except di-lig-o, intel-leg-6, neg-leg-6, see 147, 2.
lc-5 (defective), Ice-re, ic-I, ic-tum, to strike.
Present stem rare : ic-it, ic-itur, ic-imur.
sid-o, side-re, sld-I, to fit down.
The Pf. was originally reduplicated as the Present ; see 133, u. In composition the
Pf. is -sedi, -sessum,/TO»i sede-5, thus :
con-sid-o, con-side-re, con-sed-i, con-ses-sum, to settle down.
scab-i, to scratch.
solv-1, solu-tum, to loose, pay.
vert-1, ver-sum, to turn.
revert-i (active), re-ver-sum, to turn back.
verr-i (rare), ver-sum, to sweep.
vis-i, to visit.
volv-i, volu-tum, to roll.
OLI percel!5, percull, see 144. On tollo, sustull, sec 155.
scab-o,
scabe-re,
solv-5,
solve-re,
vert-6,
verte-re,
re-vert-or,
re-vert-1,
verr-5,
verre-re,
vis-5,
vise-re,
volv-6,
volve-re,
2. The Nasal class :
psall-o, psalle-re, psall-I,
sall-6, salle-re, (sall-I),
Very rare except in the past participle salsus.
vell-o, velle-re, vell-i (vul-si), vnl-sum,
The Pf . vulsi is post-Augustan.
to play on the cithern.
sal-sum, to salt.
to pluck.
lamb-o,
lambe-re,
lamb-I,
to lick.
rump-o,
rumpe-re,
rup-i,
rup-tum,
to break.
ac-cend-o,
ac-cende-re,
ac-cend-i,
ac-c6n-sum,
to kindle.
d6-fend-o,
fund-5 (Ftro),
de"-fende-re,
funde-re,
de-fend-i,
fud-i,
de-fen-suui,
fu-sum,
to strike away,
defend,
to pour.
mand-o,
mande-re,
mand-I,
man-sum,
to chew.
pand-o, pande-re,
pan-sum in Supine is late.
pand-1,
pas-sum,
to spread out.
prehend-o, prehende-re, prehend-i,
Often shortened to prSndo, prfindere, prendi,
prehgn-sum, to seize.
prensum.
scand-o, scande-re,
a(d)-, d5-scend-5, de-scende-re,
scand-i,
de-scend-i.
scan-sum,
de-scen-sum,
to climb,
toclimb up, down.
frang-6,
per-fring-o,
frange-re,
per-fringe-re,
freg-i,
per-frgg-i,
frac-tum,
per-frac-tum,
to break,
to shiver.
linqu-o,
re-linqu-o,
linque-re,
re-linque-re,
liqu-i,
re-liqu-I,
re-lic-tum,
to leave,
to leave behind.
(pang-o),
com-ping-o,
See 149, b, 155.
(pange-re),
com-pinge-re,
(P8g-»i
com-peg-i.
(pac-tum),
com-pac-tum,
to drive in.
to drive tight.
vinc-o (vie),
vince-re,
vlc-l,
vic-tum,
to conquer.
ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.
IO9
3. The I-class.
(a) With long vowel in the Perfect.
capi-o (cap-), cape-re, . c5p-I, cap-turn, to take.
ac-cipi-o, ac-cipe-re, ac-cep-I, ac-cep-tum, to receive.
faci-6, face-re, fec-1, fac-tum, to make.
cale-faci-o (calf.), cale-face-re, cale-fSc-I, cale-fac-tum, to make warm.
per-fici-o, per-fice-re,' per-fe"c-l, per-fec-tum, to achieve.
The Pf. was originally reduplicated ; on Impv. fac, see 130, 5.
fodi-o, fode-re, fod-1, fos-sum, to dig.
fugi-o, fuge-re, fug-f, (fug-i-turus), to flee.
iaci-o, iace-re, ie"c-I, iac-tum, to cast.
con-ici-5, con-ice-re, con-i6c-i, con-iec-tum, to gather.
(b) With short vowel in the Pf. due to the loss of the reduplication :
find-o, finde-re, fid-1, fis-sum, to cleave.
scind-5, scinde-re, scid-I, scis-sum, to split.
The reduplicated form sci-cidl is found in early Latin.
161. In the fourth conjugation :
amici-o forms rarely in late Latin amid ; see 142, 4.
com-peri-5, com-perl-re, com-per-1, com-per-tum, to find out.
re-peri-5, re-perl-re, rep-per-I, re-per-tum, tofind.
See the simple verb parere, 157.
veni-o, venl-re, v6n-I, venjtum, to come.
In early Latin sporadic tenses from a form venere occur, as advenat, Svenat.
162. A number of verbs of the third conjugation have a character-
istic -u- ; these form the perfect in -I.
ab-lu-o,
ab-lue-re,
ab-lu-1,
ab-lu-tum,
to wash off.
ab-nu-o,
ab-nue-re,
ab-nu-I,
(ab-nu-itur-us),
to dissent.
acu-o,
acue-re,
acu-i,
acu-tum,
to sharpen.
ad-nu-o(an-nu-o), ad-nue-re,
ad-nu-i,
to nod assent.
argu-6,
argue-re,
argu-1,
argu-tum,
to accuse.
batu-o,
batue-re,
batu-i,
to beat.
con-gru-o,
con-grue-re,
con-gru-1,
to agree.
de-libu-o,
dS-libue-re,
d6-libu-I,
dg-libii-tum,
to anoint.
ex-u-6,
ex-ue-re,
ex-u-i,
ex-u-tum,
to put off, doff.
im-bu-5,
im-bue-re,
im-bu-I,
im-bu-tum,
to dip, dye.
in-du-6,
in-due-re,
in-du-i,
in-du-tum,
to put on, don.
lu-o,
lue-re,
lu-1,
lu-itur-us,
to atone for.
metu-o,
metue-re,
metu-I,
tofear.
minu-o,
minue-re,
minu-1,
minu-tum,
to lessen.
plu-o,
plue-re,
plu-it, pluv-it,
to rain.
ru-o,
rue-re,
ru-I,
ru-tum (ruiturus), to rush down.
spu-6,
spue-re,
spu-1,
spu-tum,
to speio.
statu-6,
statue-re,
statu-i,
statu-tum,
co settle.
sternu-5,
sternue-re,
sternu-I,
to sneeze.
BU-O,
sue-re,
su-i,
su-tum,
to sew.
tribu-o,
tribue-re,
tribu-1,
tribti-tum,
to allot.
I IO DEPONEXTS.
DEPONENTS.
163. The majority of the deponent verbs belong to the first conju-
gation. In many instances they have parallel active forms in early or
in late Latin. The principal verbs are as follows :
In the first conjugation :
adul-or, adula-rl, aclula-tus sum, tofaicn upon.
Occasionally active in ante-classical Latin (LucR. v., 1070) and more often in later
Latin.
alterc-or, alterca-rl, alterca-tus sum, to wrangle.
In early Latin altercasti (TBB., And. 653), altercas. Active forms more common
in late Latin.
arbitr-or, arbitra-ri, arbitra-tus sum, to think.
PLAUT. uses this verb also as an active, but later this usage is rare.
aucup-or, aucupa-ri, aucupa-tus sum, to try to catch.
Active forms are common in early Latin.
augur-or, augura-rf, augura-tus sum, to take the auguries.
Active forms are early, legal, and late. Use as a passive is occasional in the clas-
sical period.
auspic-or, auspica-rl, auspica-tus sum, to take the auspices.
Active forms are early and late. Cic. and LIVT use the verb as a passive in a few
instances.
comit-or, comita-rl, comita-tus sum, to accompany.
Poets (Ov., PROP., etc.) use the active forms frequently. The Perfect Part, comita-
tus is common as a passive, also in classical Latin.
comment-or, commenta-rl, commenta-tus sum, to discuss.
Cic. uses commentatus as a passive in Br. 88, 301, Fam. xvi., 26, 1.
conflict-or, conflicta-rl. confllcta-tus sum, to struggle.
Occasionally found for confllctare. See TEB., Arid., 93.
conspic-or, conspica-rl, conspica-tus sum, to descry.
So dBspicor, suspicor. But a few forms are occasionally (usually in early Latin)
used as passives, especially dSspicatus (PLAUT., TEK.), compared dSspicatissimus
by Cic. (Sest. 16, 36, Verr. in., 41, 98). PLAUT., Cos. 394, suspicSs.
contempl-or, contempla-rl, contempla-tus sum, to survey.
The active forms are used frequently in early Latin (regularly by PLAUT.).
c5pul-or, c5pula-rl, copulS-tus sum, to join.
So PLAUT., Aid. 116. Otherwise everywhere copulare.
crlmin-or, crimina-rl, crimina-tus sum, to charge.
PLAUT. uses crJminaret, ENNIUS crlminat.
cunct-or, cuncta-rl, cuncta-tus sum, to delay.
Active forms are occasional in early and late Latin.
dign-or, dfgna-rl, dlgna-tus sum, to deem worthy.
This verb is predominantly post-classical and poetical. The active forms are early
and rare ; perhaps once in CICERO.
DEPONENTS. Ill
fabric-or, fabrica-rl, fabrica-tus sum, to forge,
The active forms belong to poetry aud to post- Augustan prose.
faener-or, faenera-rl, faenera-tus sum, to lend on Interest.
Active forms occasional in early Latin and more frequent in late Latin.
fluctu-or, fluctua-ri, fluctua-tus sum, to undulate.
Active forms are rare in PLAUT. and in Cic., but iiot uncommon later. The de-
ponent forms are post-Ciceronian.
(for), fa-rl, fa-tus sum, to speak.
See 175, 3.
frustr-or, frustra-ri, frustra-tus sum, to deceive.
Active forms rare, but at all periods.
illacrim-or, illacrima-rl, illacrima-tus sum, to weep over.
In Cic. and HOR. ; otherwise active.
interpret-or, interpreta-rl, interpreta-tus sum, to interpret.
Cic. uses interpretatus occasionally as a passive ; likewise LIVY and others.
luct-or, lucta-rl, lucta-tus sum, to wrestle.
PLAUT., TER., ENNIUS, VARHO show sporadic forms of the active.
ludific-or, ludifica-rl, ludifica-tus sum, to make aport.
Active frequent in PLAUT., and occasionally later.
medic-or, medica-rl, medica-tus sum, to heal.
The active is once in PLAUT., and frequent in poets and post- Augustan prose.
medit-or, medita-ri, medita-tus sum, to think over
The form meditatUS is very commonly found as a passive.
muner-or, munera-rl, munera-tus sum, to bestow.
Active forms in early Latin and occasionally in Cic. and later.
nutrlc-or, niitrlca-rl, nutrlca-tus sum, to suckle.
Active forms in early Latin.
od5r-or, odora-rl, odora-tus sum, to smell.
Active forms occasional at all periods.
opln-or, opfna-ri, opina-tus sum, to think.
opino is frequent in early Latin, and oplnatus as passive is common in CICEKO.
palp-or, palpa-rl, palpa-tus sum, to stroke.
Is occasional (principally in early Latin) for palpare.
popul-or, popula-ri, popula-tus sum, to ravage.
Active forms in simple verb and compounds are early, poetical, and post-classic
sclscit-or, sclscita-rl, sclscita-tus sum, to ingittre.
PLAUT., Merc. 389, sciscitaro (active).
scrut-or, scruta-ri, scruta-tus sum, to search.
PLAUT., Aul. 657, perscrutavl. The use as a passive occurs first in SENECA
sect-or, secta-ri, secta-tus sum, to pursue.
Active forms and passive usages are early.
stabul-or, stabula-ri, stabula-tus sum, to stable.
Active forms begin with VERGIL.
tut-or, tuta-rl, tuta-tus sum, to protect.
Active forms and passive usages are early and rare.
112 DEPONENTS.
tumultu-or, tumultua-ri, tumultua-tus sum, to raise a riot.
But PLAUTITS uses active forms ; and passive uses are occasional later.
vag-or, vaga-rl, vaga-tus sum, to wander.
Active forms belong to early Latin.
vener-or, venera-ri, venera-tus sum, to reverence.
But PLAUT. uses venero, venerem ; VEKO., HOB., and later writers show passive
uses.
164. In the second conjugation :
fate-or, fate-rl, fas-sus sum, to confess.
cSn-fite-or, c5n-fite-rl, con-fes-sus sum, to confess.
Both fateor and confiteor are used occasionally as passives by Cic. and later.
lice-or, licS-rl, lici-tus sum, to bid (at a salt).
mere-or, merg-ri, meri-tus sum, to deserve.
Especially in the phrases mererl bene dS aliquo, to deserve well of any one.
Otherwise the active is usual.
misere-or, misere-rl, miseri-tus sum, to pity.
In early Latin the active forms are found occasionally, e. g., LUCK, in., 881.
pollice-or, pollic8-ri, pollici-tus sum, to promise.
Occasionally used as a passive in post-classical Latin.
re-or, rS-rl, ra-tus sum, to think.
Pr. Part. Active is wanting.
tue-or, tuS-rl, tui-tus (tutus' sum, to protect.
In early Latin and occasionally later, a parallel form, tuor, tul, tuitus sum,
occurs. For toitus usually tutatus.
vere-or, verS-rl, veri-tus sum, to fear.
165- In the third conjugation :
aplsc-or, apisc-i, ap-tus sum, to get.
Simple verb is frequent in early and late Latin. Of the compounds, adipiscor,
adiplsci, adeptus sum, is usually deponent in classical times, but occurs occasionally
as a passive in SALL. and later writers. The compounds ind-, red-, are rare.
am-plect-or, am-plect-I, am-plex-us sum, to twine round, embrace.
So the compounds complector, circumplector. In early Latin active forms are
occasionally found ; e. g., amplectitote, circumplecte (PLAUT.).
com-min-lsc-ol, com-min-isc-i, com-men-tus sum, to think up, devise.
OVID and later writers use commentus as a passive.
experg-isc-or, (-reg-) ex-perg-Isc-I, ex-per-rSc-tus sum, to (right one's self
tip) awake.
fung-or, fung-I, func-tus sum, to discharge.
This verb is used passively very rarely : TER., Ad. 508. LUCK, in., 968. Cic., Sest.
4,10.
fru-or (frugv-), fru-I, fruc-tus (fru-i-tus) sum, to enjoy.
The form fruitus is rare and late.
DEPONEKTS. 113
gradi-or, grad-1, gres-sus sum, to step,
ag-gredi-or, ag-gred-i, ag-gres-sus sum, to attack.
Occasionally active forms of t-he fourth conjugation are found in early Latin.
lab-or, lab-1, lap-sus sum, to glide.
loqu-or, loqu-1, locu-tus sum, to speak.
mori-or, mor-1, mortu-us sum, to die.
Early Latin shows parallel forms of the fourth conjugation, as morlri, cmorirl.
Fut. Part, moritiirus ; see 135, n., 3.
nanc-Isc-or, nanc-lsc-1, nac-tus (nanc-tus) sum, to get.
nasc-or (gna-), nasc-1, na-tus sum, to be bom.
Put. Part, nasciturus.
nlt-or (gnict- 1. nit-I, ni-sus (nlx-us) sum, (. to stay one's self on.
from genii), ' nl-surus,
ob-llv-lsc-or, ob-liv-isc-1, ob-11-tus sum, to forget.
pac-isc-or, pac-isc-1, pac-tus sum (pepigl), to drive (a bargain).
Occasionally active forms are found in early Latin ; in Cic. pactus is frequently
used as a passive. See pango.
pati-or, pat-I, pas-sus sum, to suffer.
per-peti-or, per-pet-i, per-pes-sus sum, to endure to the end.
pro-fic-isc-or, pro-fic-isc-i, pro-fec-tus sum, to (get forward) set out.
ButPLAUT., MM. 1329, proficlSCO.
quer-or, quer-i, ques-tus sum, to complain.
sequ-or, sequ-I, secu-tus sum, to follow.
ulc-isc-or, ulc-Isc-i, ul-tus sum, to avenge.
Active forms are rare ; so once in ENNIUS. But SALL., LIVT, and later writers use
the verb as a passive sometimes.
ut-or, ut-i, u-sus sum, to use.
PLAUT. shows the compound abusa as a passive (Asin. 196).
veh-or, veh-I, vec-tus sum, to (wagon) ride.
vesc-or, vesc-1, tofeed.
166- In the fourth conjugation :
assenti-or, assenti-rl, assen-sus sum, to assent.
Active forms are not uncommon in early Latin. Cic. uses the Pf . active forms fre-
quently ; likewise later writers.
com-peri-or, comperl-rl, to find out.
Occasionally found (but rarely in classical Latin ; as, SALL., J., 45, 1 ; 108, 3) for
comperio, comperlre. But experior, experirl, expertus sum, to try, is regularly
deponent ; though Cic. and others use often the Pf. active forms.
largi-or, largl-rl, largi-tus sum, to bestow.
menti-or, menti-rl, menti-tus sum, to lie.
The poets and later prose writers use this as a passive also.
m6ti-or, mSti-ri, mSn-sus sum, to measure.
Passive usage is common, especially in the compounds : dSmSnsus, climensus,
emgnsus, permSnsus, remensus.
114 SEMI-DEPONENTS.
5rdi-or, ordl-rl, 6r-sus sum, to begin.
orsus, and more commonly exorsus, are also found as passives.
ori-or, ori-ri, or-tus sum, to arise.
The Pr. Indie, is usually formal according to the third conjugation ; the Impf.
Subjv. always orerer ; but the Fut. Part, is oriturus. The compounds follow the
same usage except adorlrl, to rise up at, attack, which follows the fourth conjugation.
parti-or, parti-rl, parti-tus sum, to share.
Active forms and passive uses are found in early Latin, and sporadically in C'ic.
and later.
poti-or, potl-ri, potl-tus sum, to get possession of '.
The Pr. Indie., Impf. Subjv., and occasionally other forms, are also found in early
Latin and the poets, inflected according to the third conjugation ; so regularly after
PLAUT. potitur, frequently poterStur, potergmur.
puni-or, punl-rl, punl-tus sum, to punish.
Occasionally in Cic. and late writers for punlre.
sorti-or, sortl-rl, sortl-tus sum, to cast lots.
Active occasionally in early Latin, and passive uses later of the Pf . Participle.
SEMI-DEPONENTS.
167. i. A few verbs form the Perfect forms only as deponents :
aude-5, aude-re, au-sussum, to dare.
On the aorist forms ausim, etc., see 131, 4, b.
fld-o, fld-ere, fi-sus sum, to trust.
gaude-o, gaudS-re, gav-lsus sum, to rejoice.
sole-o, sole-re, sol-itus sum, to be ivont.
The Pf. active is found in early Latin ; but rarely.
2. The reverse usage is found in :
re-vert-or, re-vert-I, re-vert-I, to turn back.
So also dgverti, but without Pf. Part. Keversus is also used actively, bnt rever-
sus sum for revertl is post-classic.
See also assentior, etc., 166.
NOTES.— 1. Some active verbs have a Perfect Participle passive with active mean-
ing, as : cenatus, one who has dined, from c<5nare, to dine ; pransus, having break-
fasted, from prandeo, / breakfast ; potus, drunken, from pot5, / drink ; iuratus,
having taken the oath, sworn., from iur5, 1 swear ; coniuratus, a conspirator, from
coniuro, I conspire. Many such are used purely as Adjectives: consideratus, cir-
cumspect, from cOnsldero ; cautus, wary, from caved, I beware.
2. The Perfect Participle of many deponent Verbs has both active and passive mean-
ing : adeptus (adiplscor\ having acquired, or being acquired ; comitatus (comitor,
I accompany) ; effatus (effor, I speak out) ; expertus (experior, I try) ; exsecratus
(exsecror, I curse) ; imitatus (imitor, I copy) ; meritus (mereor, I deserve) ; opl-
natus, necopinatus (opinor, / think) ; pactus fpaciscor, / contract) ; partitus
(partior, / distribute) ; sortitus (sortior, least lots) ; tueor, I protect ; tutus, safe.
For others, see the list of deponents.
IRREGULAR VERBS. 115
IRREGULAR VERBS.
168. Irregular in the formation of the tense-stems :
1. Nine verbs of the third conjugation, which have, in spite of the
short stem-syllable, the Pf. in -si, viz. :
clepo, Ijllch ; rego, I keep right ; tego, leaver in ; coquo, I bake ; and the com-
pounds of lego, I pick-up ; lacio, I lure ; specie, I spy (-Iig5, -licio, -spicio) ; divide,
I part ; quatio, I shake. See 147, 2.
Prom lego, however, only dlligS, Hove ; intellego, / understand ; and neglegS,
neglect, are irregular. The other compounds are regular. See 147, 2.
2. Five verbs of the third conjugation, which, in spite of long stem-
syllable, have the Pf . in -I, viz. :
Iamb5 / lick ; cudo, / hammer ; sldS, / sit (160, 1) ; strldeO, / whistle (159) ;
vertO, / turn (160, 1).
3. Assimilation between bs and ms occurs in the Pf. and Sup. of
iube-S, I order. See 147, 1.
prem-o (-prim-5), I press. See 147, 2.
4. Special irregularities occur in :
bib-5, I drink. 154, 2.
mane-5, /remain. 147, 1.
ni5ti-or, I measure. 166.
met-5, I mow. 142, 3.
mori-or, I die. 165.
rauci-o, lam hoarse. 150, 2.
re-or, I think. 164.
5. Formed from different tense-stems, are the tenses of
fer-5, I bear. 171.
toll-o, I lift. 155.
169. Irregular in the conjugation of the Present-stem i
1 . ori-or, ori-ri, or-tus sum, to arise.
See 166.
%
2. I-re, to go.
The stem is i, which, before a, 0, u, becomes e,
PRIN. PARTS : e5, Ire, IvI (il), itum.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
/ go. I be going.
PBES. So. — i. e-5, PL. — i-nius, SG. — ea-m, PL. — ea-mus,
2. I-s, i-tis, ea-s, ea-tis,
3. i-t, eu-nt. ea-t, ea-nt,
Il6 IKREQULAE VERBS.
IMPF. I-ba-m, I went. 1-re-m, / were going.
FUT. i-b-o, I shall go.
PEBF. I-v-i (i-1), / have gone. 1-v-eri-m (i-eri-m).
PLUPP. I-v-era-m (i-era-m), / had gone. I-v-isse-m (i-isse-m, 1-sse-m).
FUT.PF. i-v-er-o (i-er-5), I shall have gone.
IMPERATIVE.
So. — 2. I, go thou. i-to, thou shall go.
3. - i-to, he shall go.
PL. — 2. 1-te, go ye. I-t5te, ye shall go.
3. eu-nto, they shall go.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES.
PRE#. l-re. PBES. i6-ns (Gr. eu-nt-is).
PUT. i-tur-um esse. PUT. i-tur-us.
PEBF. i-v-isse (i-sse).
GERUND. SUPINE.
eu-ncl-l, etc. i-tum, to go.
REMARKS. — i. Like the simple verb are inflected most of the com-
pounds, except in the Perfect system, where syncope regularly takes
place (see 131, 2). V6n-eo, / am for sale, and per-eS, / perish, serve as
passives to vSn-do, / sell, and per-do, / destroy, whose regular passives
occur only in the forms v5nditus, vSndendus, and perditus (but see Hon.,
Sat. , ii. 6, 59). Amb-io, I solicit, follows the fourth conjugation through-
out, but in post-Ciceronian writers (LivY, TAC., PLIN. Mix.) shows occa-
sional forms like those of e5. Some compounds show occasionally Fut.
in -earn after the time of SENECA.
2. The passive of the simple verb is found only in the impersonal
forms Itur, Ibatur, itum est, Irl (in combination with the Supine). But
compounds with transitive force are conjugated regularly ; so, prae-
ter-e5 forms praeter-eor, -iris, Itur, -imur, -iminl, -euntur, ibar, etc., -itus
sum, eram, ero, -euntor, -Itor, -in, -eundus.
3. quire, to be able ; nequlre, to be unable.
170. (a) que-5, I am able, is found in the following forms, of which
those in parenthesis are unclassical, occurring jn early and late Latin
and the poets ; CAESAR uses no form of queo.
PR. INDIC. queS, (quis), (quit), qulmus, (quitis), queunt. PR. SUBJV. queam,
queas, queat, queamus, queatis, queant. IMPP. (quibam), (quirem). FUT.
(quibo). PF. quivi, etc.; qulverim, etc. PLUPF. quiveram, etc.; quivissem,
etc. FUT. PP. quivers, etc. PR. INF. quire. PF. qulvisse. PART, quigns.
(b) neque-6, / am unable, has the same forms, all of which seem to be
classic excepting the Future Indicative, which is not cited.
i
IREEGULAR VERBS.
117
4. fer-re, to bear.
171. The endings beginning with t, s, and r are added
directly to the root (132). Some parts are supplied by tul-
(tol-, tla-).
PBIN. PABTS : fero, ferre, tuli, latum.
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRES. / bear.
So. — i. fer-5, PL. — fer-i-mus,
2. fer-s, fer-tis,
3. fer-t, fer-u-nt.
IMPP. ferS-ba-m, / was bearing.
FUT. fera-m, / shall bear.
PEBF. tul-I, / have borne.
PLUPF. tul-era-m.
FUT. PP. tul-er-o.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
/ be bearing.
SG.— fera-m, PL.— fera-mua,
fera-s, fera-tis,
fera-t, fera-nt.
fer-re-m, I icere bearing.
tul-eri-m.
tul-isse-m.
SG. — 2. fer,
PL. — 2. fer-te,
3-
IMPERATIVE.
bear thou.
bear ye.
fer-t5,
fer-to,
fer-tote,
feru-nto,
thou shalt bear,
he shall bear,
ye shall bear,
they shall bear.
INFINITIVE.
PRES. fer-re.
FUT. la-tur-um esse.
PERF. tul-isse.
GERUND,
fere-nd-l, etc.
PASSIVE.
PRES.
INDICATIVE.
I am borne.
SG. — i. fer-o-r, PL. — feri-mur,
PARTICIPLES.
PRES. ferS-ns, bearing.
PUT. la-tur-us.
SUPINE,
la-torn (t(o)la-tum).
SUBJUNCTIVE.
/ be borne.
SG.— fera-r, PL. — fera-mur,
2. fer-ris,
feri-minl,
fera-ris,
f era-mini,
3. fer-tur,
feru-ntur.
fera-tur,
fera-ntur.
IMPF.
fere-ba-r.
fer-re-r.
FUT.
fera-r.
PERF.
la-tus sum.
la-tus sim.
PLUPF.
la-tus eram.
la-tus essem.
FUT. PF.
IS-tus ero.
Il8 IRREGULAR VERBS.
IMPERATIVE.
SG. — 2. fer-re, be thou borne. fer-tor, thou shalt be borne
3. fer-tor, he shall be borne.
PL. — 2. feri-mini, be ye borne.
3. feru-ntor, they shall be borne
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
PRES. fer-rl, to be borne. PERF. la-t-us, -a, -urn, borne.
Fur. la-turn W. GERUNDIVE.
PERF. la-turn esse, to have been borne. fere-nd-us.
COMPOUNDS.
af-fer-6,
af-fer-re,
at-tul-I,
al-la-tum,
to bear to.
au-fer-6,
au-fer-re,
abs-tul-I,
ab-la-tum,
to bear away.
c6n-fer-5,
c5n-fer-re,
con-tul-1.
col-la-tum,
to collect.
dif-fer-5,
dif-fer-re,
dis-tul-I,
dl-la-tum,
to put off.
ef-fer-5,
ef-fer-re,
ex-tul-I,
e-la-tum,
to carry out.
of-fer-o,
of-fer-re,
ob-tul-I,
ob-la-tum,
to offer.
NOTES.— 1. The Pf. tull was originally reduplicated te-tull. See 134, iii., 155.
Traces of this are seen in rettttll.
2. Suf-fero, / undergo, has the Pf . sus-tin-ul (sus-tul-I, sub-la-tum, being
appropriated to toll-5). (155.)
5. ed-ere, to eat.
172. In certain forms the endings beginning with s, t, and
r are added directly to the root (132) ; d before s (r) is
dropped or assimilated (as ss), and before t becomes s.
PBIN. PARTS : ed5, edere (6sse), 6dl, gsurn.
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
/ eat. I be eating.
So. — i. ed-5, PL. — edi-rnus, SG. — eda-m, PL. — eda-mus,
2. edi-s, e-s, edi-tis, es-tis, eda-s, eda-tis,
3. edi-t, e-st, edu-nt. eda-t, eda-nt.
IMPP. ede-ba-m, / ate. ede-re-m, es-se-m, / were eating
FUT. eda-m.
PBRF. 6d-I. ed-eri-m.
PLUFF. ed-era-m. ed-isse-m.
FUT. PF. ed-er-o.
IRREGULAR VERRS.
IMPERATIVE.
SG. — 2. ede, 5s,
PL. — 2. edi-te, es-te,
3-
eat thou.
eat ye.
edi-to, Ss-to,
edi-to, gs-to,
edi-tote, es-tote,
edu-nto,
PARTICIPLE.
PBES. (edS-ns).
FUT. gs-ur-us.
thou shalt eat.
he shall eat.
ye shall eat.
they shall eat
INFINITIVE.
PRES. ede-re, gs-se, to eat.
FUT. es-ur-um esse.
PEKP. gd-isse.
GERUND. SUPINE.
ede-nd-i, etc. es-uin, es-u.
PASSIVE.
In the passive voice the only peculiarities are as follows: Pr. Indie.
Sing. Third, editur and gstur. Impf. Subjv. Sing. Third, edergtur and
gssgtur. The Pf. Part, is gsus and the Gerundive edendus.
NOTE.— In the Pr. Subjv. Active, early Latin shows edim, edis, edit, cdimus,
editis, edint. Also gssum and gssu in the Sup., gssurus in the Fut. Part. Come-
dere also shows coinestus for comesus.
6. fi-eri, to become.
173. Fl-5 is conjugated in the Present, Imperfect, and Future,
according to the fourth conjugation, but in the Subjunctive Imperfect
and in the Infinitive the stem is increased by e; thus, fi-e-rem, I were
becoming ; fi-e-n, to become. In these forms the i is short, but else-
where it is long even before another vowel.
The Infinitive ends in -rl, and the whole Verb in the Present-stem
is treated as the Passive to faci5, / make. The rest of the Passive is
formed regularly from facio.
PBIN. PARTS : fl5, fieri, factus sum.
ACTIVE.
faciS, / make.
faciebam, I made.
faciam, / shall make.
fScI.
fgceram.
PBES.
IMPF.
FUT.
PEKP.
PLUPF.
FUT. Pr. fgcero.
etc.
IMPERATIVE.
(fl), (fl-t6).
(fi-te).
PASSIVE.
INDIC. fl6, 1 am made, I become.
fls, fit (fimus, fltis), fiunt.
flgbam, / ivas made, I became.
flam, / shall be made (become).
factus sum.
factus cram.
factus er5.
SUBJV. flam, fias, fiat, etc.
fierem, fiergs, etc.
INFINITIVE.
PKES. fieri.
PERF. factum esse, to have become,
FUT. futurum esse or fore.
FUT. Pr. factum fore.
I2O
IRREGULAR VERBS.
NOTES. — 1. Occasionally in early Latin the form fiere is found for the Infinitive,
which indicates that the verb was originally active. The forms fieri and fierem are
very common in early Latin, along with the normal forms. Of the forms hi parenthe-
sis fimus and fitis do not certainly occur, and the Imperative forms are early. Pas-
sive forms of fio are very rare ; never in PLAUTUS or TERENCE.
2. The compounds of facio with Prepositions change the a of the stem into i, and
form the Passive in classical Latin regularly from the same stem : perficiS, / ackiere,
Pass, perficior ; interficio, Pass, interficior, lam destroyed. But interfleri, c5n-
flerent, confieri, and several other forms are found in early Latin, and occasionally
in classical times. When compounded with words other than prepositions, facio
retains its a, and uses fi5 as its Passive :
patefacio, Hay open, Pass. patefi5; calefacio, I warm, Pass, calefio.
For the accent, see 15, 2, K. 2.
174. 7. vel-le, to ~be willing.
nolle, to be unwilling ; malle, to be willing rather.
PHIN. PARTS : vo!5, velle, volul ; no!5, nolle, nolul ; malo, malle, malui.
INDICATIVE.
PRES.
vo!5,
vis,
vult,
volurnus,
vultis,
volunt.
nolo,
non vis,
noil volt,
nolumus,
non vultis,
nolunt.
malo,
mavis,
mavult,
malumus,
mavultis,
malunt.
IMPF.
volebam,
nolebam,
malebain.
PUT.
volanx,
voles, etc.
nolam,
noles, etc.
malain,
males, etc.
PBKF.
volul,
nolui,
malul, etc.
FLUFF.
volueram,
nolueram,
malueram, etc,
PUT. PF.
voluero,
noluero,
maluero, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRES.
velim,
veils,
velit,
vellmus,
velltis,
velint.
nolim,
noils,
nolit,
nollmus,
nolltis,
nolint.
malim,
malls,
malit,
malimus,
malitis,
malint.
IMPF.
vellem,
nollem,
uiallem.
PEKF.
voluerim,
noluerim,
maluerim, etc.
PLUPF.
voluissem,
nolnissem,
maluissem, etc.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
121
IMPV.
INF. PR. velle,
PF. voluisse,
PART, volens,
SG. — noil, nollto.
PL. — nolite, nolitote, noluntS.
nolle, malle.
noluisse, maluisse.
nolens.
NOTES.— 1. To the time of CICERO, and occasionally later, volt, voltis, are employed
for vult, vultis. In familiar language si vis, Si vultis, were contracted to sis,
sultis ; vis was further combined with -ne into vin.
2. Nolo is a contraction of nevolo (= non volo), and in early Latin we find, along
with the forms given above, also nevis, nevolt ; also occaBionally we find non veils,
non velit, non velint, non vellem, for noils, etc. ; but the feeling is slightly different.
3. Malo = ma volo, from magdnage, magis)-volo. Frequently in PLAUT., but
rarely in TER., we find mavolo, mavolunt, mavolet, mavelim, -Is, -it, mavellem,
instead of maid, malim, malls, etc.
175.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
i . aid, / say aye.
3. ait, PL. — 3. aiunt.
3. aiant.
INDIC. PRES. SG. — I. aio, 2. ais,
IMFF. aiebam, etc.
PERF. 3- ai*-
SUBJV. PRES. SG. — 2. aias, 3. aiat,
PART, aiens (as adj.), affirmative. IMPV. al.
NOTE.— In early Latin ain (= aisne ?) was scanned often as a monosyllable ; and
in the Impf ., aibam, albas, aibat, aibant were frequently employed along with the
normal forms. The Irnpv. is rare, and found only in early Latin. Pr. Subjv. aiam is
emended into PL., Ep., 281.
2. inquam, / say, quoth I.
INDIC. PHES. So. — i. inquam, 2. inquis, 3. inquit.
PL. — i. inquimus, 2. inquitis, 3. inquiont.
IMPF. SG. — 3. inquiSbat.
FUT. SG. — 2. inquies, 3. inquiet.
PERF. SG. — i. inquil, 2. inquistl, 3. inquit.
IMPV. inque, iuquito.
3. fa-ri, to speak.
INDIC. PRES. f&tue. FUT. fabor, ffibitur. PERF. Stus sum, etc. IMPV. fare.
PART. PRES. fans, fantis, fantl, fantem. GER. fandl, fando. SUP. fatu.
NOTE. — In addition to these, compounds show also PRES. : -faris, -famur, -faminl,
-fantur ; IMPF. : -fabar, -fabantur ; PUT. : -fabere, -fabimur ; PABT. : -fante
and others. These forma, as well as the uncompounded forms, though occasionally
found in prose, are peculiar to the poets until post- Augustan times. The Pf . Part, is
sometimes used passively ; so especially fatum,/«te ; effatus, designated.
122 DEFECTIVE VERBS.
4. have-re (ave-re), salve-re.
IMPV. have, salve, salvebis, hail thou !
haveto, salveto.
havete, salvete, hail ye !
INF. havgre, salvere.
Corresponding to these are the forms of valere, viz. : val6, valete,
valere, farewell.
5. coepi, meminl, odi, novl.
In use only in the Perfect-stem are coepi, / have begun, which serves
as a Perfect to iucipio, and memini, / remember, 5dl, / hate, n5vl (from
nosco, see 131, 3, 140), I know, am aware, consuevi (from consuesc5), 1
am wont, which have the force of Presents.
a. INDIC. coepi, / have begun. SUBJV. coeperim.
coeperam. coepissem.
coeperO. INF. coepisse, to have begun.
NOTE.— Early Latin shows coepio, coepias, coepiat, coepiam, coepere, coeperet.
Future Participle coepturus is Post- Augustan. IncSpI is ante-classical.
Passive forms coeptus sum, etc., occur with the same meaning in combination with
a Passive Infinitive. See 423, N. 3.
b. INDIC. memini, I remember. SUBJV. meminerim.
memineram. meniinisseni.
meminerS. INF. meminisse, to remember.
IMPV. So. — memento. PL. — mementote.
c. INDIC. Odi, I hate, SUBJV. Sderim.
oderam. odissem.
odero. INF. Sdisse, to hate.
FUT. PAKT. osurus.
NOTE.— Occasionally in early Latin, the poets, and later prose, deponent forms of the
Perfect are found, 6sus sum, etc. For the Passive the phrase odi5 esse is used.
d. INDIC. n5vl. SUBJV. nSverim (nSrim).
noveram ( noram). novissem (nossem).
noverS (n5r5). INF. nSvisse (n5sse) to know.
6. cedo, quaeso.
Other defective forms are :
SG. — cedo, give ! (old Impv.) PL. — cette.
INDIC. PBES. quaes5, please (i. e., I seek, beg), quaesumus.
NOTE.— Other forms of quaeso are found occasionally in early Latin, and sporadi-
cally in Cic., SAIX., and later ; the Pf. forms have been attached to quaerere, 137, c.
FOKMATION OF WORDS. 123
FORMATION OF WORDS.
176. By the formation of words is meant the way in which
stems are made of roots, new stems of old, and in which
words are compounded.
177. All roots of the Latin language are probably mono-
syllabic. * They can be ascertained only by scientific analysis.
The difference between Root and Stem has been set forth in 25, NN.
Sometimes the Stem is the same as the Boot ; £0 especially in the Root
Verbs (132). But it is usually different.
178. Words are either simple or compound.
A simple word is one that is formed from a single root :
sol, sun; sta-re, stand, stay.
A compound word is one that is made up of two or more
roots : sdl-stiti-um, sun-staying, solstice.
A.— Simple Words.
179. Simple words are partly primitive, partly derivative
or secondary.
1. Primitive words come from the root, and as this usually appears
in the simplest form of the verb-stem, primitive words are called
verbals. Examples are the root- verbal forms (134, n., 132, 135, i.),
some substantives of the third declension, as dux (duc-s), leader, root
due (see 183, i), many substantives of the first, second, and fourth
declensions, as : scrlb-a (scrflbo, / write), scribe.
2. Derivative words are formed from a noun-stem ; hence called
denominatives : vetus-tas, age, from vetes- (N. vetus), old.
NOTE.— Denominative verbs include many verbs which cannot definitely be referred
to any substantive ; such as many frequentatives and intensives. In its narrower sig-
nification the term refers to the special class of verbs made from substantives in use.
180. Substantives are generally formed by means of a suf-
fix. A suffix is an addition to a stem, and serves to define its
meaning or show its relations. So from the verbal stem scrlb-
(scrlbo, I write) comes scrip-tor, writ-er; scrlp-tio(n), writ-ing.
* The theory of monosyllabic roots is adopted here as being somewhat more con-
venient than the theory of polysyllabic roots, now held by some important scholars.
Of course it will be understood that the actual existence of mere roots can be assumed
only for a very early period in the development of language, long before the indepen-
dent existence of Latin.
124 FORMATION OF WORDS.
Suffixes are either primary or secondary. A primary suffix is one
added to a root (or verb stem) to form primitive words. A secondary
suffix is one used in the formation of derivative words. Thus, -tor in
scrip-tor is a primary suffix ; -tas in vetus-tas is secondary.
NOTES.— 1. By the fading out of the difference between primary and secondary suf-
fixes, primary suffixes come to be used sometimes to form secondary derivatives.
2. Consonant stems before consonant suffixes undergo the usual changes (9). So
scrlb-tor becomes scrip-tor ; rgg-s becomes re's. Stems are sometimes extended by
a vowel, usually i, less often u, to facilitate pronunciation : val-i-dus, strong ; dOC-
u-mentum, proof; sometimes they change the stem vowel : teg, cort r ; tog-a, toga ;
tug-urium, hut.
3. Vowel stems lengthen the final vowel : acu-, sharpen ; acu-men, sharp part,
point.
The final vowel often disappears before the suffix : opta-, choose ; opt-io, choice.
181. FORMATION OF SUBSTANTIVES.
The suffixes, as applied to various roots, have often special func-
tions, and form words of definite meaning. The most important are
as follows :
1. Agency is indicated by
-tor, -trie (N. tor (?».), trtx (/.)): ama-tor, lover; vic-trix, con-
qneress ; occasionally -ter (N. ter, G. -tri) : ar-bi-ter (= ad + ba, step),
umpire; -on (N. 6, G. onis) : com-bib-o (fellow-drinker), boon compan-
ion; occasionally -o, -a (N. -us, -a) : serv-os, slave; scrib-a, scribe;
-onOf -ona (N. onu-s, -ona) : col-onu-s, settler ; -(i)t (N. es, G. itis) :
mil-es, soldier, and a few others.
2. Action, Activity, and Event are indicated by
a. -tu (N. tu-s, su-s, G. -us) : ad-ven-tus, arrival ; -tri-na (N.
trlna) : doc-trlna, instruction; -ln-a (N. -Ina) : rap-ina, rapine; -men
(N. men, G. min-is) : ag-men, train; -mento (N. mentum) : tor-mentu-m,
torture; -e-la (ella) : loqu-ela, speech; quer-Sla, complaint; -cinio
(N. -u-m) : latro-ciniu-m, highway robbery ; -monio, -rnonia (N.
monia, moniu-m) : queri-mOnia, complaint ; testi-moniu-m, testimony.
b. Abstracts. Masculine : -5s- (N. -or, G. -or-is) : ang-or, anguish.
Feminine : -on (N. d5, g5, G. in-is) : ima-g5, image; cup-i-do, desire;
-ia : audac-ia, boldness ; -ion (N. i5) : leg-io, legion; -tin : avari-tia,
avarice; collateral are some with Nom. in -ties, as duri-tiSs, hard-
ness; -tion (N. ti6, sio) : amb-i-tio, ambition ; con-ftl-sio, confusion; -tat
(N. tas) : aequali-tas, equality; -tura : pic-tura, painting; -tut- (N. tus,
sus): iuven-tus, youth; -tu (-su) (N. tu-s, su-s), s6n-sus, perception;
-tudon (N. tud-o, G. -inis): aegri-tudo, sickness of heart. Neuter: -tio
(N. tiu-m) : servi-tiu-m, bondage.
3. An Artisan or Tradesman is indicated by
-ario (N. ariu-s) : argent-ariu-s, money changer.
FORMATION OF WORDS. 125
4. The Trade is indicated by
-aria : argent-aria, silver mine, bank.
5. The Locality of the work (or trade) is indicated by
-firio (N. ariu-m) : semin-ariu-m, seed-plot ; -dnio (N. 5niu-m) : full-
onium, fuller's shop; -Ina : offic-ma, workshop; -cro, -eulo (N. -cru-ra,
•culu-m) : lava-cru-m, bath ; -trino, -trlna (N. trina, trinu-m) : su-
trlna, shoemaker's shop ; pis-trinu-m, mill.
6. Instrument and Means are indicated by
-bro, -bra, (N". bra, bru-m) : ll-bra, balance, ; crl-brum, sieve; -cro,
-culo (N. cru-m, culu-m) : ba-culu-m, walking stick; -lo, -la (N. -la,
-lu-m) : pi-la, pillar ; t6-lu-m, weapon; -ulo, -ula (N. ulu-s, ula, ulu-m) :
cap-ulu-s, handle; r6g-ula, rule; cing-ulu-m, girdle; -mento (N.
mentu-m) : al-i-mentu-m, nourishment ; -fro, -tra (N. tra, tru-m) :
fenes-tra, window ; ara-tru-m, plough.
7. Relationship is indicated by
-ter (N. ter, G. tr-is) : pa-ier, father; ma-ter, mother.
8. Condition or Relation by
-Ina : dlscipl-ina, discipline; medic-Ina, medicine.
g. Function is indicated by
-tura (sura) : cul-tura, cultivation.
10. Office is indicated by
-atu (N". atus, G. atus) : consul-atus, consulship; -tura (-surd) :
dicta-tura, dictatorship.
11. Dense Growths are indicated by
-eto (N. gtu-m) : murt-6tu-m, myrtle grove; -to (N. tu-m) : virgul-
tu-m, brushwood.
12. Diminutives are indicated by
-lo, -la (N. lu-s, etc.), before which a liquid is assimilated (9, 3) :
(ager), agel-lu-s, little field ; (tabul-a), tabel-la, tablet ; (coron-a), corol-la,
chaplet ; Catul-lu-s (= Caton-lu-s) ; homul-lu-s (= homon-lu-s), manikin;
-olo, -ulo : olo after e, i, v, otherwise -ulo (N. olu-s, ola, ulu-s, ula) :
(alve-us), alve-olu-s, little hollow ; (ffli-a), fili-ola, little daughter ; (valv-a),
valv-olae, pod (little flaps); (circu-s), circ-ulu-s, little ring, -culo, -cula
(N. culu-s, etc.), after e, i, u, and consonant stems : (sp5s), spS-cula, slight
hope; (amni-s), amni-culu-s, streamlet; (versu-s), versi-culu-s, versicle;
(homo, homin-), homun-culu-s, manikin ; (flos), flos-culu-s, floweret ; (cor,
cord-), cor-culu-m, dear heart.
NOTE.— Diminutives have, as a rule, the gender of their primitives. Exceptions
are sometimes due to difference in signification.
126 FORMATION OF WORDS.
182. FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES.
The significance of the most important adjective suffixes, which are
often identical with the substantive suffixes, are as follows :
1. Action is indicated by
-bundo, -bunda : cuncta-bundu-s, lingering. Repeated action by
-ulo, -ula : cred-ulu-s, quick to believe; quer-ulu-s, complaining. Pas-
sive action is indicated by -bili ; ama-bili-s, lovable; vend-i-bili-s, to be
sold.
2. Capacity and Inclination are indicated by
-cundo, -cunda : fa-cundu-s, of ready speech ; verS-ctmdu-a,
modest. Passive Capacity by -Hi : ag-ili-s, readily moved, quick ;
doc-ili-s, teachable. The Capacity and Resulting Condition by -till :
duc-tili-s, ductile ; fic-tili-s, capable of being moulded, of clay.
3. Tendency is indicated by
-aci (N. ax) : aud-ax, bold ; rap-ax, greedy.
4. Likeness and Composition or Material are indicated by
-aceo, -acea : arundin-aceu-s, reedy ; cret-aceu-s, chalky; -icio :
i.ater-iciu-s, made of brick ; -no, -na : acer-nu-s, of maple ; -neo9
-nea : ae-neu-s, brazen.
5. Belonging to is indicated by
-*o, -id : imperator-iu-s, belonging to a general ; -icio, -icia :
aedil-iciu-s, belonging to an cedile; -ano, -ana : hum-anu-s, human ;
urb-anu-s, urbane, city.
6. Appurtenance and Medium are indicated by
-ticOf -tica : aqua-ticu-s, aquatic ; -till- : aqua-tili-s, aquatic ;
pluma-tili-s, (embroidered) like feathers.
7. Origin is indicated by
-io, -ia : Cornel-ia (I6x), Corinth-iu-s ; -ano, -ana, -Ino, -Ina :
Rom-ann-s. Lat-mu-s.
8. Time is indicated by
-tino, -tina : cras-tinu-s, of to-morrow; -terno, -terna : hes-
ternu-s, of yesterday; -urno, -urna : noct-urnu-s, by night ; -tino,
-tina : matii-tinu-s, of early morning.
9. Locality, where, whence, is indicated by
-ia : Gall-ia, Gaul ; -tino : intes-tlnu-s, inner, intestine; -ensi :
circ-Snsi-s, from the circus ; Sicili-ensi-s, Sicilian ; -ati (N. -as) : cui-
as, of what country ?
FORMATION OF WORDS. I2/
10. Fulness is indicated by
-oso, -osa : anim-6su-s, full of spirit ; verb-5sti-s, wordy ; -lento,
tenta : sanguin-o-lentu-s, bloody ; op-u-lentu-s, with abundant means.
11. Descent and Relationship are indicated in Latin mainly by Greek
adjectives, made by the addition of Greek suffixes to proper names.
These suffixes are
M. -ides (G. idae), F. -is (G. idis), from Nominatives in us, or, os,
and s preceded by a consonant ; M. -ides (G. Idae), F. -eis (G. eidis),
from Nominatives in -eus ; M. -ades (G. adae), F. -eis (G. Sidis), from
Nominatives in as (G. ae) and -6s (G. -ae) ; M. -iades (G. iadae), F.
-ias (G. iadis). from Nominatives in ius, 6s, on, o ; F. -I ne, from Nom-
inatives in -us and -eus ; F. -idne, from Nominatives in ius : (Tantalus)
Tantal-ides, son of Tantalus ; Tantal-is, daughter of Tantalus ; (Pelops)
Pelopides ; (Th6s-eus) Thes-ides, Th6sSis ; (Aeneas) Aene-ades (Aeneadae also) ;
(Laertes) Laert-iades ; (Neptunus) Neptiin-In5 ; (Acrisius) Acrisione", etc.
12. Diminutive adjectives are formed by the same suffixes as
diminutive substantives (181, 12) : albus, white, albu-lus, whitish ; miser,
wretched, mis-ellus, poor (little) ; Seer, sharp, acri-culu-s, somewhat sharp.
183. SUBSTANTIVES WITHOUT SUFFIXES.
(Root Substantives.)
A few substantives are formed from roots without a suffix :
1. With weak root : duc-s (dux), leader, from root due, lead ; nec-s
(nex), killing, from root nee, kill.
2. With strong root : luc-s (lux), light, from root Itic, light ; r6g-s
(rex), king, from root reg, rule.
3. With reduplication : car-cer, jail ; mar-mor, marble ; mur-inur,
murmur.
THE SUFFIXES IN DETAIL.
184 Vowels.
-o, -a (N. u-s, a, u-m). Primary and secondary adjectives, and
primary substantives. The primary adjectives resemble somewhat
active participles in meaning ; fer-u-s, wild ; vag-u-s, wandering. Sec-
ondary are especially adjectives in -orus, as dec-oru-s, graceful, from
decor, grace, and many others. Masculine substantives in -u-s are often
nouns of agency, sometimes nomina actionis and concretes therefrom :
coqu-o-s, cook ; rog-u-s, pyre. Those in -a (a) are regularly nomina agen-
tis, especially in composition ; scrlb-a, scribe ; agri-cola, husbandman
(land-tiller). Feminines are in -o (which are principally names of
trees : pir-us, pear tree) and in -a : lup-a, she-wolf, as well as lup-u-s.
Neuters are those in -u-m, especially names of fruits : pir-u-m, pear.
128 FORMATION OF WORDS.
-i (N. i-s, e). Substantives : M . orb-i-s, circle ; pisc-i-s, fsh, etc. ;
F. av-i-s, bird ; nav-i-s, ship ; N. mar-e, sea ; conclav-e, room. Adjec-
tives : dnlc-i-s, sweet ; turp-i-s, ugly.
NOTE.— In adjectives especially, i is often weakened from -o, as inermis and iner-
mus, etc. Sometimes in substantives the Norn, shows es instead of is, as caedes and
caedis, etc.
-io, -ia (X. iu-s, ia, iu-m). — i. This is the principal secondary suf-
fix, and is found iu many combinations ; but it is also found as prim-
ary in substantives : M. gen-iu-s, genius ; glad-iu-s, sword ; F. pluv-ia,
rain; tib-ia, fife; N. fol-iu-m, leaf; od-iu-m, hate; and in adjectives
ex-im-iu-s, pre-eminent (taken out) ; sauc-iu-s, wounded, pluv-iu-s, rainy.
2. The suffix occurs as secondary in the forms -eio (-aeo\ -io, eo, io, in
a large number of Gentile names : Flav-Siu-s, Flav-iu-s ; Liic-eiu-s, Luc-
Iu-s, Luc-iu-s ; similar to these are those in ed-iu-s, id-iu-s, id-iu-s, -61-iu-s,
fl-iu-s, as Luc-id-iu-s, Corn-el-iu-s, Luc-fl-iu-s. Also in some adjectives of
material in eu-s, as aur-eu-s, golden ; ferr-eu-s, iron. It occurs, moreover,
in many compound adjective and substantive endings, to be discussed
later, and in many abstract substantives in -antia, -entia, as abund-
ant-ia, abundance ; sci-ent-ia, knowledge, etc.
NOTE. — Instead of -ia, we find -ea in a few words : cav-ea, cage ; cochl-ea, snail.
-u (N. u-s, u). M. arc-u-s, bate ; curr-u-s, chariot ; F. ac-u-s, needle ;
man-u-s, hand; X. gel-u, frost; gen-u, knee. Secondary is socr-u-s,
mother-in-law. This suffix is found occasionally in adjectives com-
pounded with manus, as centi-manus, hundred-handed ; also in the form
•ui in a few adjectives, as ten-ui-s, thin.
NOTE. — The suffix -o often alternates with -u.
-no, -ua (N. uo-s, ua, uo-m). Primary and secondary substantives
and adjectives. Primary : M. eq-uo-s, horse ; F. al-vo-s, belly ; N.
ai-vo-m, field ; par-vo-s, small. Secondary : M. patr-uo-p, uncle; cer-vo-s,
stag ; F. ian-ua, gate ; cern-uo-s, stooping ; aesti-vo-s, of the summer.
NOTE.— Ivo-S is found in voc-lVO-S (vacuos), rediv-lvo-S, etc. -vo is weakened
to -vi in pel-vi-S, basin.
185. Suffixes with Gutturals.
1. -co, -en (N. cu-s, ca, cu-m). This forms both adjectives and
substantives, but is usually secondary. As primary it is found in :
io-cu-s, jest ; lo-cu-s, place ; as secondary in : medi-cu-s, physician ; ped-
i-ca, fetter. Adjectives are primary : cas-cu-s, very old ; or secondary :
civi-cu-s, civic.
2. -aco, -aca (N. acu-s, aca, acu-m). Primary in clo-aca, sewer;
secondary in ver-b8n-aca, vervain, and in adjectives, as mer-acu-s, pure.
FORMATION OF WORDS. I2Q
3. -tco, -lea (N. icu-s, lea, Icu-m). In substantives, such as : M.
umbil-icu-s, navel ; F. lect-ica, litter ; urt-Ica, nettle. In adjectives, as :
am-lcu-s, friendly, etc.
4. -uco, -uca (N. ficu-s, uca, ucu-m). Primary in the adjectives :
cad-ucu-s, tottering ; mand-ucu-s, voracious ; secondary in alb-ucu-s, as-
phodel ; and in substantives 'n -uca, as er-uca, caterpillar ; verr-uca, wart.
NOTE.— Similar is the secondary suffix -inquo in long-inquo-s, distant; pro-
pinquo-s, near.
5. -de (N. ax) forms substantives and adjectives ; the latter ex-
pressing inclination. Primary : aud-ax, bold ; fug-ax, fleeing. Second-
ary : F. forn-ax, furnace ; Hm-ax, snail ; vSr-ax, truthful.
6. -ec (N. ex) is found in verv-6x, wether.
7. -ic (N. ex) forms a number of substantives that are mainly mas-
culine, except names of plants and trees. Primary : M. ap-ex, point ;
cort-ex, baric ; F. il-ex, holm-oak. Secondary : F. imbr-ex, gutter-tile.
8. -ic (N. Ix) forms substantives and adjectives. Primary : F. rad-
ix, root ; fgl-ix, happy. Secondary : corn-lx, crow, and feminines in
-trlx.
9. -be (N. ox) is found in the substantive eel-ox, yacht, and in a
number of adjectives : atr-ox, ferocious.
10. -dceo, -acea (N. aceu-s, acea, aceu-m), forms adjectives of
material or likeness : cret-aceu-s, chalk-like.
NOTE. — Notice also the suffix -ac-io, especially in proper names : V5r-acia.
11. -ic-eo, -ic-io (N. iceu-s, etc., iciu-s, etc.), form adjectives in-
dicating material, the latter suffix also some indicating relation : palm-
iceu-s, of palms ; tribun-iciu-s, proceeding from a tribune.
12. -Ic-io (X. iciu-s, etc.) is found in nov-lciu-s, new, and in words
of participial meaning coming from forms in -to, as advent-Iciu-s,
stranger.
13. -uc-eof -uc-io, occurs in pann-uceu-s or pann-uciu-s.
14. -ci-no and ci-n'-io occur (perhaps) in vati-cinu-s, prophetic,
and in some secondary neuter substantives, which denote action or
event, as latro-ciniu-m, robbery..
15. -cro, -cri, -do, -culo (N. cer, sris, elu-m, culu-m) are found
in some adjectives with participial force, and in a few neuter substan-
tives indicating, instrument or locality ; as ala-cer, quick ; medio-cris,
mediocre ; perl-clum (-culu-m), danger ; ba-culu-m, stick (also m.) ; sepul-
crum, grave. Also the primary ridi-culu-s, laughable, and the secondary
anni-culu-s, aged.
9
130 FORMATION OF WORDS.
186. Suffixes with a Dental.
1. -d (N. (d)s). Substantives only : fr&u-s, cheatery ; merct-t, pay ;
custo-s, guard.
2. -do, -di (N. du-s, etc., di-s). A secondary suffix used especially
for the formation of adjectives : frig-i-du-s, cold ; vir-i-dis, blooming.
3. -to (-so) (N. tu-s, ta, tu-m). This forms substantives and ad-
jectives, and is both primary and secondary. Primary : M. cub-i-tu-s,
elbow; dig-i-tus, finger ; also substantives in -ta after Greek analogy :
poS-ta, poet ; F. has-ta, spear ; am-i-ta, aunt ; N". lu-tu-m, mud ; t6c-
tum, roof ; ap-tu-s, fit ; bea-tu-s, blessed. Secondary : M. nau-ta, sailor ;
F. iuven-ta, youth ; N. dense growths in 6-tu-m : frutic-6-tu-m, copse ;
ius-tu-B^Mstf," and passive adjectives like barb-a-tus, bearded.
4. -ti (-si) [N. tis (sis)] forms primary and secondary substantives
and adjectives. Primary : M. fus-ti-s, club ; cas-si-s, hunting-net ; F.
cu-ti-s, skin ; si-ti-s, thirst ; for-ti-s, brave ; ml-ti-s, mild. Secondary :
(i) in adjectives and substantives indicating home, origin, usually
preceded by a, I, more rarely 6 : Camer-s (Camer-ti-s), from Camerinum;
Arplna-s (Arplna-ti-s), of Arpinum ; nostr-as, from our country ; (2) in
the form -finsi (for ent-ti) in adjectives of origin and locality : Sicili-Sn-
si-s, from Sicily ; castr-6nsi-s, belonging to a camp.
5. -t (N. (t)s) forms primary and secondary substantives and ad-
jectives. Primary : M. com-e-s, companion ; dSn-s, tooth ; F. qui-6-s,
rest ; ar-s, art ; locupl-6-s, wealthy ; with preceding e : dlv-e-s, rich.
Note also the Participles in -ns. Secondary : M. al-e-s, bird ; eque-s,
horseman.
6. -ento- (N. -entu-s, etc.) forms substantives and adjectives ; the
latter are participial in nature. M. v-entu-s, wind ; F. pol-enta, cluster ;
N. ungu-entu-m, salve ; cru-entu-s, bloody. Secondary adjectives :
gracil-entu-s, slender ; and by false analogy corpul-entu-s, corpulent, and
the like.
7. -tat, -tut (M. ta-s, tu-s), forms secondary feminine abstracts and
collectives : clv-i-ta-s, citizenship ; Hber-ta-s, freedom ; iuven-tu-s, youth ;
vir-tfi-s, manliness.
8. -tio, -tia, -tie (N. tiu-m, tia, ti5-s), likewise form abstracts and
collectives, some neuter, most masculine : servi-tiu-m, slavery ; molli-
tia and molli-tiS-s, gentleness, etc.
NOTES. — 1. In in-i-tiu-m, beginning, and spa-tiu-m, room, the suffix is primary.
2. Many roots form various derivatives of similar meaning, thus : dur-i-tia, dur-
i-tie-s, dur-i-ta-s, hardness, etc.
9. -ti-co (N. ti-cu-s, etc.) forms secondary adjectives signifying
pertaining to ; domes-ticu-s, domestic; aqua-ticu-s, aquatic.
FORMATION OF WORDS. 131
NOTE.— In such substantives as canti-CU-m, triti-C-um, the ending -co lias been
added to a participial form in -to (canto, trlto).
10. -ter forms primary substantives of kinship; as, pa-ter, etc.
Different in formation is soror, which, like ux-or, has no feminine ending.
11. -tor (-sor), F. -tric(K. tor, trlx), form substantives of agency,
those in trlx being all secondary : aud-i-tor, hearer ; v6na-trlx, huntress ;
-tor is secondary in gladia-tor, etc.
12. -turo-f -tur-a, (N. turu-s, etc.), forms participles in turu-s, as
ama-turu-s, and feminine substantives denoting activity or office : cul-
tur-a, cultivation ; c6n-sur-a, censorship,
13. -tor-io (-sor-io) (N. t8riu-s, etc.), form neuter substantives of
place and instrument, and adjectives denoting that which pertains to
the actor : audi-tor-iu-m, lecture hall ; alea-tor-iu-s, pertaining to a dice-
player.
14. -tro, -tra (N. tra, tru-m), forms substantives, mostly neuter,
of means: ara-tru-m, plough; fenes-tra (f.), window. From words like
mon-s-tru-m, monster, come by false analogy those in -ster, as pin-aster,
wild pine.
15. -tero, -tera (N. ter, tra, tru-m) forms comparatives: al-ter,
other ; dex-ter, right ; nos-ter, our ; perhaps also adjectives of relation,
appurtenance, or locality in -s-ter (Gr. stris), such as : palus-ter (= palud-
ter), swampy ; eques-ter, equestrian ; campes-ter, champaign ; terres-ter,
of the earth, terrestrial.
16. -trino, -trlna (N. trlna, trlnu-m), forms substantives of activ-
ity (f.), or of locality (f., n.) : doc-trina, instruction ; pls-trlna, bakery;
pls-trlnu-m, (pounding) mill.
17. -till- (-sili) (N. tili-s, tile) forms primary adjectives of capacity
and adaptation, and with preceding a secondary adjectives of relation
or belonging : duc-tili-s, ductile ; mis-sili-s, missile ; aqua-tili-s, belong-
ing to the water.
1 8. -ter -no (N. ternu-s, etc.) forms adjectives indicating time :
hes-ternu-s, of yesterday.
19. -tur-no(N. turnu-s, etc.) forms substantives and adjectives
indicating continuance, from which come proper names : Sa-turnu-s,
Vol-turnu-s, tac-i-turnu-s, silent.
20. -tino, -tlno (N. tinu-s, tinu-s, etc.), forms adjectives of time,
the latter also of place : cras-tinu-s, of to-morrow ; intes-tlnn-s, inner,
intestine ; matu-tinu-s, of early morning.
21. -tu (-su) (N. tu-s, su-s) forms substantives of action and its
result : adven-tu-s, arrival ; cur-su-s, course ; or-tu-s, rising.
22. -a-tu (N. a-tu-s) forms secondary substantives of office : consul-
a-tu-s, consulship • sen-a-tu-s, senate.
132 FORMATION OF WORDS.
187. Suffixes with a Labial.
1. -bo, -ba (N. bu-s, etc.), forms substantives and adjectives : M.
mor-bu-s, disease ; F. bar-ba, beard ; N. ver-bu-m, word ; pro-bu-s, up-
right.
2. -bro, -bra (N. bra, brti-m), forms substantives indicating means
or instrument. Primary : F. dola-bra, celt ; li-bra, balance ; ter-e-bra,
borer; N. cri-bru-m, sieve. Secondary : candela-bru-m, candlestick.
NOTE.— Very rare are masculines ; as, fa-ber, wright ; Mulci-ber, Vulcan.
3. -bulo, -bula (N. bula, bulu-m), form substantives : F. fa-bula,
tale ; fl-bula (fig-), brooch ; N. pa-bulu-m, fodder ; sta-bulu-m, stall.
4. -bill (N. bili-s) forms adjectives, mostly of passive meaning in
classical prose : ama-bili-s, lovable ; no-bili-s, noble ; fle-bili-s, weeping.
188. Suffixes with an original S.
1. -is (N. is, G. er-is) forms a few substantives: v5m-is (also v5m-er),
ploughshare; cin-is, ashes; pulv-is, dust ; cucum-is, cucumber.
2. -us (N. us, G. er-is, or-is) forms primary and secondary neuter
substantives. Primary : foed-us, bond ; gen-us, race ; temp-us, time.
Secondary : pect-us, breast ; fiin-us, funeral.
NOTE. — Some such words have become monosyllabic, as aes, iiis, rfls.
3. -OS (-or) (N. 6s, or, G. 5r-is) forms many primary and a few
secondary masculine abstracts. Primary : fl-6s, flower; ain-or, love.
Secondary : aegr-or, sickness.
NOTE.— Noteworthy are M. lep-US, hare ; F. arb-os, tree (45 N.); Ven-us (G. Yen-
eris), and the adjective vet-us (G. veteris), old.
4. -es (N. es, Ss, G. is, ei) forms a few substantives of the third and
fifth declension : vat-6s, bard ; fam-6s, hunger; pl6b-6s, people.
5. -or-o (N. 5ru-s, etc.) forms secondary adjectives, as : can-5ru-s,
sounding ; hon-oru-s, honourable; and a few substantives, as : aur-ora,
morning; Flora, etc.
189. Suffixes with a Liquid.
1. -lo, -la (N. lu-s, etc.), forms many feminine and neuter, and a
few masculine substantives : M. ma-lu-s, mast ; F. pi-la, pillar ; N.
cae-lu-m (= caed-lu-m), chisel ; fl-lu-m, thread.
2. -i-lOf -i-la (N. ilu-s, etc.), forms primary and secondary sub-
FORMATION OF WOKDS. 133
stantives and adjectives. M. sib-i-lu-s, hissing ; N. cae-lu-m (= cav-
i-lu-m, hollow), heaven; nub-i-lu-s, cloudy.
3. (-o-lo),-u-lo, -u-la (N. ulu-s, etc.), form primary and second-
ary substantives, most of which indicate instrument, and primary adjec-
tives indicating repeated action or tendency: M. ang-u-lu-s, corner;
oc-u-lu-s, eye ; F. reg-u-la, rule ; teg-u-la, tile ; N. iac-u-lu-m, javelin ;
spec-u-lu-m, mirror; bib-u-lu-s, bibulous; cr6d-u-lu-s, quick to believe;
quer-u-lu-s, complaining ; caer-u-lu-s, blue (secondary), and caer-u-leu-s.
Also fam-u-lu-s, servant, and the extension fam-ili-a, family.
4. -li (N. li-s, le) occurs in the substantive : M. cau-li-s, stalk ; and
in adjectives : subtMi-s, fine; incl-li-s, cut in. Secondary in fide-li-s,
faithful.
5. -i-li (N. ili-s, ile) forms a few substantives and many adjectives
indicating passive capacity : F. strig-i-li-s, scraper ; N. teg-i-le, roof.
Also vig-il, watchman ; ag-i-li-s, readily moved ; doc-ili-s, teachable.
Secondary in hum-i-li-s, low, and in the terminations -tili-s, -sili-s.
6. -olOy -ola (after e, i, v), -ulo, -ula (N. olu-s, ulu-s, etc.), form
diminutives : alve-olu-s, little belly ; fili-olu-s, little son ; riv-ulu-s, brook-
let ; rgg-ulu-s, chief ; voc-ula, voice ; gran-ulu-m, grain ; alb-ulu-s, whit-
ish; parv-olu-s, small.
7. -ello, -ella (X. ellu-s, etc.), forms diminutives after 1 and by
assimilation after n, r : pop-ellu-s, tribelet; tab-el-la, tablet; pu-el-la, girl;
bel-lu-s (bonus), good ; misel-lus (miser), wretched. Doubly diminutive
are catel-lu-s, puppy ; cistel-la, basket ; capitel-lu-m, head.
8. -illo, -ilia (N. illu-s, etc.), forms diminutives, and is formed like
ello, but usually after a preceding i : pulv-illu-s, small cushion ; pistr-
illa, small mill; sig-illu-m, small image ; bov-illu-s, bovine. Also codic-
illl, billets ; paux-illu-s, slight; pus-illu-s, tiny.
9. -otto, is found in cor-ol-la, wreath ; 81-la, jar (aula).
10. -ullof -ulla, occurs in ul-lu-s, any. Sul-la ( = Sur-u-la), Catul-
lu-s (Caton-lus), homullus (= homon-lu-s).
11. (-co-lo), -cu-lo (N. culu-s, etc.), forms diminutives, especially
after consonantal and e, i, u stems : M. fl6s-culu-s, floweret ; homun-culu-s,
manikin (irregular) ; avu-n-culu-s, uncle (mother's brother, irregular) ;
F. spg-cula, little hope; auri-cula, ear; arbus-cula, little tree (irregular) ;
domu-n-cula, little house (irregular) ; N. cor-culu-m, (dear) heart ; munus-
culu-m, little gift. Adjectives are dulci-culu-s, sweetish, and especially
diminutives from comparative stems, melius-culu-s.
12. -cello (-cillo) (N. cellu-s, etc.) stands to culo as ello to ulo: M.
peni-cillu-s, -m, painter's brush ; es-cillu-m, little mouth ; molli-cellu-s,
eoftish.
134 FORMATION OF WORDS.
13. -uleo (N. uleu-s) forms substantives that were originally adjec-
tival : acQleu-s, sting.
14. -dlif-dri (N. ali-s, ari-s, etc.), form secondary adjectives, some
of which are substantivised in the neuter, and a few substantives : v6n-
alis, venal; mort-ali-s, mortal; singul-ari-s, unique; vulg-ari-s, common;
can-ali-s, canal; animal, living being; calc-ar, spur.
15. -ela (-ella) forms primary and secondary substantives, most of
which indicate action: loqu-ela (loqu-ella), talking; cand-6la, candle;
cust5d-ela, watching.
16. -eli (N. gli-s, etc.) forms secondary substantives and adjectives:
cardu-eli-s, linnet; crud-Sli-s, cruel.
REMARK. — A further development of -6li is -6lio, -elia : Aur-eli-us,
contum-gli-a, contumely.
17. -Hi (N. fli-s, lie) forms secondary substantives and adjectives :
M. aed-ili-s, cedile; N. cub-lie, couch; sed-lle, seat; clv-ili-s, civic; erl-li-s,
master's.
18. -mo, -ma (N. mu-s, etc.), forms primary substantives and pri-
mary and secondary adjectives. The feminine substantives express
usually the result of an action: M. an-i-mu-s, spirit; cal-mu-s, cal-a-mu-s,
stalk; F. fa-ma, fame; flam-ma, flame; N. ar-ma, arms; po-mum, fruit.
Adjectives, primary: al-mu-s, fostering; fir-mu-s, strong. Secondary:
op-I-mu-s, fat ; patr-I-mu-s, matr-I-mu-s, with father, mother, living.
19. -men, (N. men, G. min-is) forms primary, neuter substantives,
mostly indicating activity or results of activity : ag-men, train; flu-men,
river ; but M. fla-men, priest.
20. -men-to (N. mentu-m) forms substantives (mostly primary)
indicating instrument : al-i-mentu-m, nourishment ; tor-mentu-m, tor-
ture.
NOTES. — 1. -men and -mentum are often formed from the same radical. In that
case mentu-m is the more common : teg-u-men, teg-u-mentu-m, covering.
2. Rare and archaic are feminines in -menta : armenta = armentu-m.
3. -menti occurs in s6menti-s (f •), seed = sSmen (n.).
21. -met (N. mes, G. mit-is) forms a few masculine substantives :
tra-mes, path ; fo-mes, fuel ; ll-mes, cross-path.
22. -mino, -mina, -mno, -mna (N. minu-s, etc.), form sub-
stantives : M. ter-minu-s, boundary ; P. al-u-mna, foster-daughter; f8-
mina, woman ; N. da-mnu-m, loss.
23. -mon (N. m6, G. m5n-is) forms primary and secondary masculine
substantives : pul-mO, lung ; ser-mo, discourse ; te-m5,^oZe (of a chariot).
24. -mdn-io, -mdn-ia (N. monia, mOniu-m), forms primary and
FORMATION OF WORDS. 135
secondary substantives. Primary : F. al-i-monia, nourishment ; quer-i-
mBnia, complaint ; N. al-i-moniu-m, nourishment. Secondary : P. am-
monia, tartness ; N. matr-i-moniu-m, marriage.
25. -mor forms primary masculine substantives : cre-mor, broth ;
ru-mor, rumour.
26. -mic (N. mex, G. mic-is) forms a few substantives : cl-mex, bug ;
pu-mex, pumice.
27. a. -no, -na (N. nu-s, etc.), forms primary and secondary adjec-
tives ; the primary are participial in meaning ; the secondary indicate
material or relation, and occasionally locality ; when added to local
comparatives and adverbs, distributive numerals are also formed with
this suffix. Primary : dig-nu-s, worthy; plS-nu-s, full. Secondary :
diur-nu-s, daily ; frater-nu-s, brotherly ; acer-nu-s, maple ; ex-ter-nu-8,
outer ; bi-nl, two each.
NOTE. — Adjectives denoting material have also -neo (= n'-eo), as ae-neu-s,
brazen ; Ilig-neu-s, quer-neu-s.
b. -no, -na (N. nu-s, etc.), forms primary and a few secondary sub-
stantives. Primary: M. fur-nu-s, oven; pug-nu-s, fist; F. cS-na, meal ;
la-na, wool. N. do-nu-m, gift ; r6g-nu-m, kingdom. Secondary : M.
tribu-nu-s, tribune ; F. fortu-na, fortune ; albur-nu-m, sap-wood.
NOTE.— This suffix is extended iu pecu-nia, money.
28. -bundo-, -cundo (X. bundu-s, etc., cundu-s, etc.), form ad-
jectives of activity : cunct-a-bundu-s, delaying; fa-cundu-s, eloquent.
29. -ni (N. ni-s) forms primary substantives and adjectives : am-ni-s,
stream; pS-ni-s, tail; pa-ni-s. bread ; im-ma-ni-s, wild ; sgg-ni-s, lazy.
30. -iw-O, -ina (N. inu-s, etc.), forms primary and secondary sub-
stantives and adjectives. Primary : M. dom-inu-s, lord ; F. pag-ina,
page ; lic-inu-s, curled upwards. Secondary : M. ped-ic-inu-s, foot ;
F. fisc-ina, basket ; N. suc-inu-m, amber ; faec-inu-s, making dregs.
NOTE. — The suffix is extended in the proper name Lic-iniu-S.
31. -ano, -ana (N. anu-s, etc.), forms secondary adjectives, some
of which are substantivised. They indicate origin or appurtenance ;
decum-anu-s, belonging to the tenth ; hum-anu-s, human ; alt-anu-s, sea-
wind. Primary in Volc-anu-s, Di-ana.
32. -dn-eo (N. aneu-s, etc.) forms primary and secondary adjec-
tives. Primary : consent-aneu-s, harmonious. Secondary : subit-aneu-s,
sudden. This suffix becomes anio (= an'io) in proper names : Afr-aniu-s,
Fund-aniu-s.
33. -eno, -ena (N. enu-s, etc.), forms secondary substantives and
136 FORMATION OF WORDS.
adjectives : M. Vlbidi-Snu-s ; F. cat-Sna, chain ; hab-Sna, rein ; N.
ven-enu-m, poison ; eg-gnu-s, needy ; ali-6nu-s, strange. .
NOTE.— This is extended to Sn-on in toll-8n5, (well) sweep.
34. -ino, -Ina (X. inu-s, etc.), forms primary and secondary sub-
stantives and adjectives. Primary : M. cat-inu-s, -m, dish ; F. rap-ina,
rapine; ru-ina, ruin; nec-op-inu-s, unexpected. Secondary: M. pulv-
Inu-s, cushion; sal-mu-m, salt-cellar, and many feminines, especially
those denoting shops and factories; rgg-Ina, queen ; cul-ina, kitchen;
offic-Ina, workshop ; agn-Inu-s, belonging to a lamb ; div-inu-s, divine.
NOTE.— An extension of this suffix is found in rlc-lniu-m, veil.
35. -en (X. -en, G. -in-is) forms a few substantives : M. pect-en, comb ;
N. glut-en, glue.
36. -on (X. 5, G. in-is) forms a few substantives : M. card-o, hinge ;
marg-o, rim ; ord-6, rota ; F. a-sperg-6, sprinkling ; virg-5, maid ; car-5,
flesh.
NOTES.— 1. Noteworthy is hom-0, hom-in-is, man,
2. This suffix occurs very commonly in compounds forming feminine abstracts :
-eddn (N. Sd5), dulc-edo, sweetness ; -iddn (N. Id5), cup-Ido, desire ; form-
Id5,/ear; -udon (N. udo\ test-udo, tortoise ; -tn don (N. tud5), aegri-tud5,
sickness ; -agon (N. ago), im-ago, image ; -ugon (N. ugo), aer-ugo, rust ;
-Igon (N. Igo), cal-lgo, thick darkness ; or-Ig6, origin, etc.
37. -on (N. 5, G. onis) forms primary and secondary substantives.
The primary are nouns of agency : combib-5, fellow-drinker ; prae-c-o,
herald ; tl-r5, recruit. The secondary indicate often the possession of
some bodily or mental peculiarities; ale-o, dice-player; centuri-0,
centurion.
38. -ion (X. i8) forms a few masculine and many feminine primary
and secondary substantives. Primary : M. p&g-i5, dagger ; F. opln-io,
opinion ; reg-i5, region. Secondary : M. pell-i5, furrier ; vespertll-i6,
bat; F. com-mun-i5, communion.
NOTE.— Especially frequent are feminine abstracts in t-i5 (s-i5) : amb-i-ti6, ambi-
tion ; op-pugna-tiQ, siege. Noteworthy are the secondary diminutives, homunc-i5,
senec-io.
39. -otiOf -onct (X. 6nu-s, ona), forms few primary and many sec-
ondary substantives ; the masculines indicate agents, especially person
employed : M. col-5nu-s, settler ; F. matr-ona, matron; Bell-5na.
40. -onio, -onia (X. 6niu-s, etc.), forms substantives and adjec-
tives : M. Fav-6niu-s, zephyr; Pomp-5niu-s, etc.; caup-oniu-s, belonging
to a host. Xeuters indicate the trade or shop : full-Sniu-m, fuller* s-shop.
41. -ro, -ra (X. (e)r, -ra, ru-m), forms primary substantives and ad-
jectives : M. ag-e-r, field ; cap-e-r, goat ; mu-ru-s, ivall ; F. lau-m-s, laurel ;
FORMATION OF WORDS. 137
ser-ra, saw ; N. flag-ru-m, whip ; lab-ru-m, lip ; cla-ru-s, bright ; pfi-rus,
clean.
Often a short vowel precedes : M. num-e-ru-s, number ; F. cam-era,
vault ; N. iug-eru-m, measure of land. So hil-aru-s, joyous ; Ub-er,
free ; cam-uru-s, vaulted ; sat-ur, full.
NOTES.— 1. Extensions are Mer-curiu-s, tug-uriu-m, hut.
2. In a number of primary substantives and adjectives simple r is preceded by a
short vowel : M. late-r, tile ; ans-er, goose ; F. mul-i-er, woman ; N. ac-er, maple;
v6r (= ves-er), spring ; cic-ur, tame.
42. -ri (N. -(e)-r, -ris, G. ris) forms substantives and adjectives : M.
imb-e-r, rain-storm ; ac-e-r, sharp ; funeb-ri-s, funeral ; perhaps
celeb-er, thronged.
43. -aro forms adjectives, as : av-aru-s, greedy ; am-aru-s, bitter.
44. -arty -ali (N. ari-s, ali-s, etc.), forms secondary substantives and
adjectives ; -ari when the stem has 1, -ali when it has an r : pugill-arS-s,
tablets ; prlmipil-ari-s, one who has been primipilus ; some neuters in ar
(from -are) : calc-ar, spur; ex-em-p-1-ar, pattern; pulvm-ar, (sacred) couch;
auxili-ari-s, auxiliary ; mllit-ari-s, military ; c5nsul-ari-s, consular.
45. -aria, -aria (N. ariu-s, etc.), forms substantives and adjec-
tives. There are sometimes collateral forms in -Sri-s. The substantives,
when masculine, indicate artisans; when feminine, business or pro-
fession ; when neuter, the place where the work is carried on. M.
argent-ariu-s, money-changer ; ferr-ariu-s, iron-ivorker ; F. argent-aria,
silver mine, bank or banking ; N. api-ariu-m, beehive ; pom-ariu-m, apple
orchard.
46. -ero (N. Sru-s, etc.) forms sev-6rus, earnest, and the substantive
gal-Sru-s, -m, bonnet.
47. -ari forms the substantive sec-uri-s, axe, and by extension p6n-
uria, ivant.
48. The letter r appears often in combination with other suffixes, as :
-er-co in lup-ercu-s, Pan ; nov-erca, step-mother ; -er-to in lac-ertu-s, arm ;
lac-ertu-s, a lizard ; -er-bo in ac-erbu-s, sour ; sup-erbu-s, proud ; -er-vo in
ac-ervo-s, heap; cat-erva, crowd; -er-na in cav-erna, hollow; lu-cerna,
lamp ; -ter-na in lan-ter-na, lantern ; -ur-no in alb-urnu-s, white fish ;
lab-urnu-m, laburnum.
190. FORMATION OF VERBS.
1. Primitives are confined to the Third Conjugation, to some forms
of the Irregular verbs, and to some Inchoatives. The various stem-
formations are shown in 133.
2. Derivatives comprise the verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth
138 FORMATION OF WORDS.
Conjugations, and some verbs of the Third Conjugation. They are all
(except the Inchoatives and the Meditatives) formed with the suffix io,
ie (yo, ye), which is added either to simple verbal stems, or to noun
(16) stems already existing or presupposed. The i in io, ie, contracts
with the preceding vowels a, 6, i, u, leaving the ordinary forms of the
regular conjugations. Certain categories of these verbs have obtained
special names according to their various meanings :
The Causatives, formed by a change in the stem-vowel.
The Desideratives, formed by the addition of -io to nomina agentis
in -tor ; afterwards a desiderative force was associated with the com-
bination -tor-io (-tar-io), and it was applied indiscriminately.
The Frequentatives come originally probably from participial stems
in -to ; Latin developed also the suffix -ito ; further, this being added
again to -to gave rise to -tito (-sito).
The Inchoatives, formed by a special suffix, -sco (sko), are treated in
conjugation as primitives belonging to the Third Conjugation.
The Meditatives have not been explained.
NOTE.— Theoretically the Verbalia are all DSnoniinadva, but owing to the wide
working of Analogy, it has been impossible in many cases, as in ama-re, monS-re, to
discover an original noun ; while in other cases, as the verbal is formed from a part of
a denominative verb, it is convenient to retain the division.
191. A. Verbalia (derived from verb-stems, 190, N.):
1. Frequentatives or Intensives, denoting repeated or in-
tense Action. These verbs end in -tare (-sare), -itare, -titare (-sitare),
and follow the supine stem (perfect passive form).
(a) cantare, sing ; compare can5 (cantum) : cursare, run to and fro ;
compare curro (curstun) : dictare, dictate ; compare dic5 (dictum) : dor-
mltare, be sleepy ; compare dormio (dormltum) : habitare, keep, dwell ;
compare habeB (habitnm) : pollicitarl, promise freely ; compare polliceor
(pollicitus) : pulsar e, beat ; compare pello (pulsum).
(b) agit&re (ago), noscitare (nosco), sclscitare (scIscO), visitare (vls5),
vocitare (voco), volitate (vo!5).
(c) cantitare (cantare), dictitare (dictare), cursitare (cursare).
NOTES.— 1. The simple verb presupposed by the frequentative or intensive is often
out of use, as in the case of : gus-tare, taste ; hor-tarf , exhort. The frequentative or
intensive in -tare is often out of use : actitare, repeatedly or zealously agitate (no
Sctare), from ago, actum: iSctitSre, read carefully (no Igctare), from lego,
lectum.
2. The verbs of the Fourth Conjugation form no frequentatives except dormi5,
sleep, dormito ; muniS, fortify, munfto (rare) ; saliS, leap, saltO ; aperto, lay
bare, and opertS, cover, and compounds of ventS (venio, come).
2. Inchoatives indicate entrance upon an action. For their
formation see 133, V.
3. Desideratives denote Desire or Tendency. They are formed
FORMATION OF WORDS. 139
by means of the suffix -turio (-surio) : gsurire (for ed-t), to be sharp-set
for eating, hungry ; 6m-p-turlre, to be all agog for buying.
4. Causatives signify the Effecting of the Condition indicated by
their original verb. They are found mainly in the Second Conjugation,
and show usually a change in the stem-vowel.
Change: cadere, fall, and caedere, fell; liqugre, melt (trans.), and
llquere, melt (intr.) ; from root men- (as in me-men-to) comes monere,
remind ; necare, kill, and nocere, be death to ; placere, please, and
placare, cause to be pleased, appease ; sedSre, sit, and sedare, settle.
No change ; fugere, flee, and fugare, put to flight ; iacere, throw, and
iacere, (lie) thrown; pendere (hang) weigh, and pendere, hang (intr.).
5. Meditatives : (verbs that look forward to an action). These
end in -essere : arcessere, to summon ; capessere, to catch at ; facessere,
to do eagerly ; incessere, to enter ; lacessere, to irritate (136, 3, V).
192. B. Denominatives (derived from noun-stems) :
1. These are most commonly found in the First Conjugation, even
though the stem- vowel of the noun is i or u.
(a) acerva-re, heap up (from acervo-s); aestua-re, seethe (aestu-s) ;
corona-re, wreathe (corOna) ; leva-re, lighten (lev-i-s) ; macula-re, be-
smirch (macula) ; nomina-re, name (nomen, nomin-is) ; onera-re, load
(onus, oner-is).
The Deponents signify Condition, Employment : aneilla-rl, be maid
(ancilla) ; aqua-ri, be a drawer of water (aqua) ; fura-rl, thieve (fOr) ;
laeta-rl, be glad (laetu-s).
(b) albS-re, be white (albu-s) ; flor6-re, be in bloom (fl5s, fl5ris) ; fronde-re,
be in leaf (fr5ns. frondi-s) ; luce-re, be light (lux, luc-is).
(c) argue-re (be bright, sharp), prove ; laede-re, hurt ; metue-re, be in
fear (metu-s).
(d) custodl-re, guard (custSs, custod-is) ; fini-re, end (flni-s) ; leni-re
soften (ISni-s) ; vestl-re, clothe (vesti-s).
3. Noteworthy are the Diminutives formed by the suffix -illare :
st-illare, drop (st-illa) ; scint-illare, sparkle (scint-illa) ; osc-illare, to swing
(5sc-illum). Similar in function but of different formation are pullu-
lare, sprout (pul-lus) ; fodic-are, punch (fodere, dig) • albicare, whiten
(albu-s).
NOTES.— 1. The Denominatives of the First, Third, and Fourth Conjugations are
regularly transitive, those of the Second Conjugation are regularly intransitive.
2. These verbs are often found only in combination with prepositions : ab-undare,
run over, abound (from unda, wave) ; ac-cusare, accuse (from causa, case) ; ex-ag-
gerare, pile up (from agger) ; ex-stirpare, root out (stirp-s) ; il-luminare, illumine.
(from lOmen, lumin-is).
I4O FORMATION OF WORDS.
B.— Compound Words.
I. FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS.
193. i. By composition words are so put together that a
new word is made with a signification of its own. The
second word is regularly the fundamental word, the first
the modifier.
NOTE.— Properly speaking, composition occurs only in the case of substantives, i. e.->
where two or more simple stems come together. In verbs, there is either juxtaposition,
where the parts still retain their original force, or the combination of a verb with a
preposition. Broadly speaking, however, composition applies to all combinations of
words.
2. Composition is either proper or improper.
194. Substantive.
In Composition Improper there are either traces of con-
struction or the first part is still inflected : S-n5rmis = ex nSrma, out of
all rule, ; iSgis-lator, lawgiver ; Senatus-consultum, decree of the Senate.
Many of these compounds have gradually become inflectional : deli-
rus (de-lira), crazy from fear ; Sgregius (6-grege), distinguished (from
the crowd) ; procSnsul (for pro console) ; trium-vir (from trium virtun), etc.
NOTE. — From composition we must distinguish juxtaposition. So a preposition is
brought into juxtaposition with a substantive, or a substantive with a substantive :
ad-modum, to a degree, very ; ob-viam, in (he way, meeting ; ususfructtis,
fruct; luppiter, Father Jove. Noteworthy are the Copulative compounds ; such are
compound numerals like un-decim, duo-decim, etc., and occasional others : su-ove-
taur-Ilia, offerings of swine, sheep, and bulls.
195. Composition Proper.
i. The first part of the compound may be a particle, as ne-far-iu-s,
nefarious ; vS-sanu-s, mad, out of one's sound senses : or a substantive.
If it is a substantive —
(a) The stems in -a, -o, -u regularly weaken these vowels into -i
before the consonants of the second part, which i may vanish : causi-
dicus, pleader, lawyer (causa) ; signi-fer, standard-bearer (slgnu-m) ;
comi-ger, horn-wearer (cornti) ; man-ceps (maim- and cap-), one who takes
in hand, contractor. The i-stems retain i or drop it : igni-vomu-s, fire-
vomiting (igni-s) ; nau-fragu-s, shipwrecked (navi-s).
(b) Vowel-stems drop their vowel before the vowel of the second
part : magn-animu-s, great-souled ; un-animu-s, of one mind.
(c) Consonant-stems either drop their consonants or add i: homi-
cld-a, manslayer (homin-) ; lapi-cid-a, stone-cutter (lapid-) ; matr-i-cid-a,
mother -murderer, matricide.
NOTE.— The first part is rarely, if ever, a verb. APULEIUS uses the form pQeci-
FORMATION OF WORDS. 14!
2. The second part of the composition is a noun : tri-enn-iu-m, space,
of three years (annus); miseri-cor-s, tender-hearted (cor).
When the second part ends in a vowel, it adapts itself, if an adjec-
tive, to changes of gender, as flavi-comus, yellow-haired (coma, hair),
but more often this final vowel becomes i and the adjective follows the
third declension : tri-rgmi-s, trireme (rgmu-s, oar) ; ab-normi-s, abnormal
(norma, norm).
When the second part ends in a consonant, the last term usually
undergoes no change : bi-dSn-s, two-pronged ; simplex (sim-plec-s), simple,
NOTE.— From genus (G. generis), is formed dS-gener.
II. SIGNIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS.
196. Compound substantives and adjectives are divided according
to their signification into two main classes : Determinative and Pos-
sessive.
In Determinative compounds one of the terms is subordinate to the
other. They fall into two classes : Attributive or Appositional, and
Dependent.
197. i« Attributive compounds. The first part is the attribute of
the second.
The first word is, (i) a substantive : ali-pgs, wing-foot(ed) ; (2) an ad-
jective : magn-animus, great-hearted; lati-fundium, large estate; (3) a
numeral : bi-enni-um (i. e., spatium), space of two years.
2. Dependent compounds. In these the second word is simply limited
by the other, its signification not being altered.
(a) The first word is : (i) an adjective : merl-diSs (from medi-die =
medi5 dig), mid-day ; (2) an adverb : bene-ficus (well-doing), beneficent ;
male-ficus, evil-doing ; (3) a numeral : ter-geminus, triple; (4) a par-
ticle : dis-sonus, harsh-sounding ; per-magnus, very large ; in-dlgnus,
unworthy ; (5) a verb-stem : horr-i-ficus, horrible (horror-stirring).
(b) The first word gives a case relation, such as (i) the Accusative :
armi-ger = arma gergns, armour-bearer ; agri-cola •=. agrum coigns (land-
tiller), husbandman; (2) the Genitive : s5l-stitium = sSlis static (sun-
staying), solstice ; (3) the Locative : alieni-gena (born elsewhere), alien ;
(4) the Instrumental : tibi-cen = tibia cangns, flute-player.
198. Possessive Compounds are adjectival only, and are so called
because they imply the existence of a Subject possessing the quality
indicated.
The first term is, (i) a substantive : angui-manus, (having a) snake-
hand (elephant) : (2) an adjective : flavi-comus, (having) yellow hair ;
(3) a numeral : bi-fr5ns, (having) two front(s) ; (4) a particle : dis-cors,
discordant ;. in-ers, inactive.
142 FORMATION OF WORDS.
NOTE.— Notice that these divisions run into each other ; thus magn-animus la
possessive, attributive, and dependent.
199. Verb.
In Composition Imp roper the verb is joined to a verb, sub-
stantive, or adverb. In Composition Proper the verb is com-
bined with a preposition.
200. i- Compo sition Improper .
(a) Verb urith verb : This only takes place when the second part of
the compound is facio or fJ8 (173, N. 2). The first part of the compound
is regularly an intransitive of the second conjugation : cale-faci5, cale-
05, warm, am warmed.
(b) Verb with substantive : anim-adverto = animum adverto, take
notice ; manu-mitt5, set free ; usiL-capi5, acquire by use.
(c) Verb with adverb : bene-dico, bless ; male-dlc5, curse ; malO, n515
(for mage (magis) volo, ne- vo!5), satis-faciS, satisfy.
2. Composition Proper.
The verb combines with separable or inseparable prepositions
Compare 413, R. 3.
(a) With inseparable prepositions : amb-eo, go about ; am-plector, en-
fold; an-b.815, draw deep breath, pant; dis-currS, run apart; dir-imo,
160, i, and 715, E. i ; por-tend5, hold forth, portend; red-do, give back;
re-solv8, resolve ; s5-iung5, separate.
(b) With separable prepositions : ab-eS, go away ; ad-e5, come up ;
ante-currS, run in advance ; com-pono, put together ; d5-curr5, run down,
finish a course ; ex-cedo, overstep ; in-cludo, shut in ; ob-dQc5, draw
over ; per-agro, wander through ; post-habeo, keep in the background ;
prae-dlc5, foretell ; praeter-e6, pass by ; pr5d-e6, go forth ; prae-vide5,
foresee ; sub-iciO, put under ; subter-fugiS, flee from under ; super-sum,
remain over ; trans-gredior, pass beyond.
SYNTAX.
201. SYNTAX treats of the formation and combination of
sentences.
A sentence is the expression of a thought (sententia) in
words.
Sentences are divided into simple and compound.
A simple sentence is one in which the necessary parts
occur but once ; for the compound sentence see 472.
The necessary parts of the sentence are the subject and the
predicate.
The predicate is that which is said of the subject.
The subject is that of which the predicate is said.
Luna fulget, The moon shines.
Luna is the subject ; fulget, the predicate.
REiMARKs. — i. The Interjection (16, R. z) and the Vocative case (23,
5) stand outside the structure of the sentence, and therefore do not
enter as elements into Syntax, except that the Vocative is subject to
the laws of Concord. See R. 3.
2. The Vocative differs from the Nominative in form in the second
declension only, and even there the Nominative is sometimes used
instead, especially in poetry and solemn prose.
Almae fllius Maiae, H., 0., I. 2, 43 ; son of mild Mala! Audi tu,
populus Albanus, L., i. 24, 7 ; hear thou, people of Alba !
6 is prefixed to give emphasis to the address:
0 f5rm5se puer, minium nS crSde colon, V., EC. z, 17 ; O shapely boy! trustnot
complexion all too much.
The Vocative is commonly interjected in prose, except in highly emotional pas-
3. On the use of the Vocative of an adjective or participle in appo-
sition, attribution, or predication, see 289, 325, R. i.
SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
202. The most simple form of the sentence is the finite
verb : su-m, I am ; doce-s, thou teachest ; scrlbi-t, he writes.
144 SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
REMARK. — Here the form contains in itself all the necessary ele-
ments (compare 114), the persons being indicated by the endings.
From the expansion and modification of the finite verb arise all the
complicated forms of the compound sentence.
203. SUBJECT. — The subject of the Unite verb is always in
the Nominative Case, or so considered.
REMARKS. — i. The subj. of the Inf. is in the Accusative (343, 2).
2. The use of the Nom. in Latin is the same as in English.
204. The subject may be a substantive or a pronoun, or
some other word, phrase, or clause used as a substantive :
Deus muncluni gubernat, GOD steers the universe. Ego rgggs gi§cl,
[C.] ad Her., iv. 53, 66 ; I drove out kings. Sapiens r6s adversas non
timet, THE SAGE does not fear adversity, VictI in servitutem redi-
guntur, THE VANQUISHED are reduced to slavery. Contendisse de-
cSrum est, Ov., M., ix. 6 ; TO HAVE STRUGGLED is honourable. Magnum
beneficium [est] naturae quod necesse est morl, SEN., E.M.,ioi, 14;
it is a great boon of nature, THAT WE MUST NEEDS DIE. VidSs habet duas
syllabas, (the word) "VIDES" has two syllables.
NOTES. — 1. Masculine and feminine adjectives, and to a less degree participles,
are used as substantives, but with the following limitations :
(a) Many adjectives in -arius and -icus (the latter mostly Greek), designating
office or occupation, and words expressing friendship, kinship, or other relationship,
are used often as substantives both in the Sing, and the PI. of the masculine and femi-
nine : aquarius, waterman ; librarius, bookman (-seller, ivriler, etc.) v grammati-
CUS, grammarian- ,• amlcus, friend ; cognatus, kinsman ; socius, partner. Many of
these have become almost wholly fixed as substantives, as faalous,friend. See 16, N. 1.
(b) Adjectives are very often used as substantives in the masc. PI. when they desig-
nate a class : pauper 5s, the poor ; dlvitSs, the rich. In the oblique cases of the Sing.,
this use is also not uncommon ; but in the Xom. the substantive is generally expressed :
vir bonus, a good man ; mulier peregrlna, a foreign woman. So regularly, if used
•with a proper name : Plato, doctissimus homo, the learned Plato. Exceptions are rare
and scattering in prose : ego et suavissimus CicerS valBmus, C., Fam., xrv. 5, 1.
(c) On the use of participles aa substantives see 437, N.
(d) When persons are not meant, a substantive is understood : canl (capilll), ffray
hairs ; calida (aqua), warm water ; dextra (manus), right hand.
2. Neuter adjectives and participles are freely employed as substantives in both num-
bers ; in the PI. usually in Nom. and Ace., in the Sing, in all cases, butespecially in con-
r.ectioa with prepositions : medium, (he midst ; extrSmum, the end ; reliquom, the
residue ; futurum, the future ; bonum, good ; bona, blessings, possessions ; malum,
evil ; mala, misfortunes. The Plnral is frequently employed when the English idiom
prefers the Singular : v6ra, the truth ; bmnia, everything.
3. Adjectives of the Second Declension are sometimes used as neuter substantives ir,
the Gen., after words of quantity or pronouns : aliquid bonl, something good ; nihil
mall, nothing bad. Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus employed only in
combination with those of the Second, and even then very rarely (369, B. i).
Usually the adjective of the Third Declension draws the adjective of the Second
SUBJECT — PREDICATE — COPULA. 145
Into its own construction : Quid habet ista re's aut laetabile aut gl5riQsum ?
C., Tusc., i. 21, 49 ; what is there to be glad of or to brag about in that?
4. Instead of the neuter adjective, the word rSs, thing, is frequently used, especially
in forms which are identical for different genders, and consequently ambiguous ; so
bonarum rerura, of blessings, rather than bon5rum (masc. and neut.).
5. In Latin the PI. of abstract substantives occurs more frequently than in English ;
adventus imperatorum, the arrival(s) of the generals (because there were several
generals, or because they arrived at different times). Pluralising abstract substantives
often makes them concrete : fortitudin6s, gallant actions ; formldine"s, bugbears ;
irae, quarrels.
6. Other PI. expressions to be noted are: nivSs, snow(-Jlakes) ; grandings, hail
(-stones) ; pluviae, (streams of) rain ; ligna, (logs of) wood ; earn 6s, pieces of meat ;
aera, articles of bronze ; also symmetrical parts of the human body : cervicSs, neck ;
pectora, breast.
The PI. is freely used in poetry and in later prose : Otia si tollas, perifire Cu-
pldinis arcus, Ov., Hem. Am., 139 ; if you do away with holidays, Cupid's bmv (and
arrows) are ruined.
7. The rhetorical Boman of ten uses the First Person PI. for the First Person Singular.
The usage originates in modesty, but mock modesty is the worst form of pomposity.
It is never very common, and is not found before CICERO : Librum ad tS d8 senec-
tute misimus, C., Cat. M., i, 3 ; we (I) haw sent you a treatise on old age.
In poetry there is often an element of shyness ; Sitque memor nostri necne, re-
ferte mibl, Ov., Tr., iv. 3, 10 ; bring me back (word) whether she thinks of us (me
among others) or no.
8. (a) The Sing., in a collective sense, is also used for the PI., but more rarely: faba,
beans ; porous, pig (meat) ; galllna,/0z0/ (as articles of food) ; vestis, clothing.
(b) The use of the Sing, in designations of nationalities and divisions of troops is
introduced by LIVY : Romanus, the Roman forces ; Poenus, the Carthaginians ;
hostis, the enemy ; miles, the soldiery ; pedes, (he infantry ; eques, the cavalry.
205. PKEDICATE and COPULA. — When the predicate is not
in the form of a verb, but in the form of an adjective or
substantive, or equivalent, the so-called copula is generally
employed, in order to couple the adjective or substantive
with the subject.
The chief copula is the verb snm, I am.
Fortima caeca est, C., Lael., 15, 54 ; fortune is blind. TTsus magister
est optimus, C., Rab. Post., 4, 9 ; practice is the best teacher.
NOTE. — Strictly speaking, the copula is itself a predicate, as is shown by the trans-
lation when it stands alone or with an adverb : est Deus, there is a God, God exists ;
r6ct5 semper erunt rSs, things will always be (go on) ^veU ; sic vita hominum est,
C., Rose. Am., 30, 84 ; such is human life ; " So runs the world away."
206. Other copulative verbs are : videri, to seem; nasci,
to be lorn; fieri, to become; evadere, to turn out; creari, to
be created; deligi, to be chosen; putari, to be thought; haberl,
to be held; did, to be said; appellari, to be called; nominari,
to be named. Hence the rule :
Verbs of seeming, becoming, with the passive of verbs of
10
146 SUBJECT OMITTED. — IMPERSONAL VERBS.
making, choosing, showing, thinking, and calling, take two
Nominatives, one of the subject, one of the predicate :
N6m8 nascitur dives, SEN., E.M., 20, 13; no one is born rich. Aria-
tides iustus adpellatur, Aristides is called just. [Servius] rex est declara-
tus, L., i. 46, 1 ; Servius was declared king. [Thucydidgs] niimquam est
numeratus orator, C., 0., 9, 31 ; Thucydides lias never been accounted an
orator.
REMARKS. — i. With esse, serve as; vidgrl, seem; kaberi, be held; dQd,
be deemed, and rarely with other verbs, instead of the Predicate Nom.,
a phrase may be employed, as : pro" with Abl., (in) Ioc5, in numer5, with
Gen., etc.
Audacia'pro miir5 habetur, S., C., 58, 17 ; boldness is counted as a bul-
wark. In fUil Ioc5, C., Red, in Sen., 14, 35 ; as a son.
2. The previous condition is given by ex or dS and the Abl. (396, N. 2).
Ex Cratore arator factus, C. , Ph. , in. 9, 22 ; a pleader turned plowman.
3. All copulative verbs retain the Nom. with the Inf. after auxiliary
verbs (423).
Beatus esse sine virtute nenuJ potest, C., N.D., i. 18, 48 ; no one can be
happy without virtue.
4. On the Double Ace. after Active Verbs, see 340.
NOTES.— 1. The verbs mentioned, with some others, are found in good prose. Others
are either poetical or unclassical, thus : perhibSrl, to be held, is early ; apparfire, to
appear, is poetic and post-classical for vidSri ; reddi is not used for fieri ; sisti, to be
set down, is Plautine ; manSre, to remain, is late (permanSre once in CICERO).
2. Noteworthy is the use of audlre, like the Greek axoueix, to be catted, which is
confined to HORACE ; rSxque paterque audlsti, Ep., i. 7, 38 ; S., 11. 6, 20, just as
" hear " in this sense is said to be confined to MILTON.
207. SUBJECT OMITTED. — The personal pronoun is not
expressed in classical prose, unless it is emphatic, as, for
example, in contrasts :
Amamus parentSs, We love (our) parents. Ego rggSs 6i6ci, vos tyran-
n5s introducitis, [C.] ad Her., iv. 53, 66 ; I drove out kings, ye are bring-
ing in tyrants.
NOTE. — The insertion of the pronoun without emphasis is very common in the
comic poets, and seems to have been a colloquialism. Also common in CATULLUS, SAL-
LUST (as an archaism), and PETRONIUS.
208. IMPERSONAL VERBS. — Impersonal Verbs are verbs in
which the agent is regularly implied in the action, the sub-
ject in the predicate, so that the person is not expressed.
Chief of these are :
i. Verbs pertaining to the state of the weather-: tonat, it thunders,
the thunder thunders, or rather, the Thunderer thunders; fulget, fulgu-
COPULA OMITTED. 147
rat (less common), fulminat (poet.), it lightens; pluit (poet.), it rains;
ningit, it snows, etc.
Nocte pluit tola, V., (POET. LAT. MIN., iv. 155, B.) ; all night it (he,
Jupiter) rains.
NOTE.— The divine agent is sometimes expressed ; so, naturally, in religious or popu-
lar language : love tonante, fulgurante, c., Div., n. 18, 43 ; love fulgente, C.,
N. D., n. 25, 65.
2. The passive of intransitive verbs is often used impersonally ; so
regularly of verbs which in the active are construed with the Dat. (217):
vlvitur, people live ; curritur, there is a running ; pugnatur, there is a
battle ; mihi invide"tur, / am envied. The subject is contained in the verb
itself : sic vivitur = sic vita vlvitur, such is life ; pugnatur = pugna pugna-
tur, a battle is (being) fought. In the same way explain taedet, it wearies ;
miseret, it moves to pity ; piget, it disgusts ; pudet, it puts to shame.
NOTES. — 1. With all other so-called Impersonal Verbs an Inf. (422, 535) or an equiv-
alent (523) is conceived as a subject : N5n labet mihi deplorare vitam , C., Cat.
M., 23, 84. Sed accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidistl, C., Aft.,
1. 17, 2.
2. Other uses coincide with the English. So the Third Person PL of verbs of
Saying, Thinking, and Calling. Also the ideal Second Person Singular (258). To be
noticed is the occasional use of inquit, quoth he, of an imaginary person, but not by
CAESAR, SALLUST, or TACITUS : N5n concede, inquit, Epicure, C., Ac., n. 32, 101 ;
I do not yield the point, quoth he (one), to Epicurus.
209. COPULA OMITTED. — Est or sunt is often omitted in
saws and proverbs, in short statements and questions, in
rapid changes, in conditional clauses, and in tenses com-
pounded with participles :
Summum ius summa iniuria, C., Off., i. 10, 33 ; the height of right (is)
the height of wrong. Nemo malus fsllx, Juv., iv. 8 ; no bad man (is)
happy. Quid dulcius quam habere quicum omnia audeas loqul T C., Lad.,
7, 22 ; what sweeter than to have some one with whom you can venture
to talk about everything ? Sed haec vetera ; illud v6ro recgns, C., Ph., n.
II, 25. Aliquamdiu certatum, S., lug., 74, 3. Cur hostis Spartacus, si tu
clvis* C., Parad.,4, 30.
So also esse, with participles and the like :
Caesar statuit exspectandam classem, CAES. , B. &., in. 14, 1 : Caesar
resolved that the fleet must be waited for.
NOTES.— 1. The omission of esse is not common with the Nom. and Infinitive.
2. Popular speech omits freely ; so, mlrum nl, mlrum quin, factum, in Latin
comedy ; likewise potis and pote for forms of posse. To a like origin are due mlrum
quantum, nimium quantum, etc., found at all periods.
3. The ellipsis of other forms of the copula is unusual. Thus CICERO occasionally
omits sit in the Indirect Question, and TACITUS other forms of the Subjv. besides.
Fuisse is omitted by LIVT, and not unfrequently by TACITUS.
4. The Ellipsis of esse was sometimes due to the desire of avoiding the heaping up
148 AGREEMENT OF PREDICATE WITH SUBJECT.
of Infinitives. Thus sentences like non dubitS t6 esse sapientem dlcere (to declare
you to be wise) were regularly cut down to non dubito t§ sapientem dicere (to de-
clare you wise).
5. The ellipsis of other verbs, such as facere, ire, venire, dicere, etc., is charac-
teristic of popular speech ; it is therefore not uncommon in CICERO'S letters (ad Att.\
in PLINY'S letters, and in works involving dialogue, such as CICERO'S philosophical
writings. The historians avoid it, and it never occurs in CAESAK and VELLEIUS.
CONCORD.
210. THE THREE CONCORDS. — There are three great
concords in Latin :
i. The agreement of the predicate with the subject (211).
. 2. The agreement of attributive or appositive with the substantive
(285, 321).
3. The agreement of the relative with antecedent (614).
The verbal predicate agrees with its subject j
211. Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject.
in number and
person.
( in number,
The adjective predicate agrees with its subject 4 gender, and
( case.
The substantive predicate agrees with its subject in case.
Substantlva mobiiia (21, 2) are treated as adjectives, and follow the
number and gender of the subject.
Ego rgges elSci, vSs tyrannos introducitft, [C.] ad Her., iv. 53, 66 (207).
Verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt, C., Lad., 9, 32 ; true friendships are
abiding. DCs est decem talenta, TER. , And., 950 ; the dowry is ten talents.
Usus magister est optimus, C. , Bab. Post. , 4, 9 (205). Arx est monosyllabum,
"Arx" is a monosyllable. Compare Ignis c5nfector est et consumptor
omnium, CM N.D., n. 15, 41 ; fire is the doer-up (destroyer) and eater-up
(consumer) of everything, with confectrix rgrum omnium vetustas, C. , Frag.
REMARKS. — i. The violation of the rules of agreement is due chiefly
to one of two causes; either the natural relation is preferred to the
artificial (c5nstructi5 ad sSnsum, per synesin, according to the sense), or
the nearer is preferred to the more remote. Hence the following
EXCEPTIONS. — (a) Substantives of multitude often take the predi-
cate in the Plural: paxs,part ; vis (power), quantity ; multitude, crowd ;
organized bodies more rarely. Also, but not often, such words as
quisque, uterque, nem6, etc.
Pars malor receperant sSsS, L., xxxiv. 47, 6 ; the greater part had re-
tired. Omnis multitude abeunt, L., xxiv. 3, 15 ; all the crowd depart.
AGEEEMENT OF PREDICATE WITH SUBJECT. 149
Magna vis eminus missa telorum multa nostrls vulnera infer Sbant, CAES.,
B.C., ii. 6, 5. Uterque eorum ex castrls exercitum gducunt, CAES., B.C.,
in. 30, 3.
NOTE.— This usage is very common in comedy, but extremely rare in model prose.
LIVY shows a greater variety and a larger number of substantives than any other
author, and poets and late prose writers are free. Yet HORACE uses regularly the Sing,
with a collective, while VERGIL varies, often employing first a Sing, and then a PI. verb
with the 'same substantive (as A., n. 64). TACITUS often uses quisque with a Plural.
(b) The adjective predicate often follows the natural gender of the
subject ; so especially with milia. This usage belongs pre-eminently
to the historians.
Capita coniurationis virgis caesl (sunt), L., x. i, 3 ; the heads of the
conspiracy were flogged. Samnitium caesi tria milia, Cf. L., x. 34, 3 ;
of the Sammies (there) were slain three thousand.
The passive verb often agrees in gender with the predicate : Non
omnis error stultitia dicenda est, G.,Div., n. 43, 90 ; not every false step
is to be called folly.
(c) The copula often agrees with the number of the predicate ("the
wages of sin is death ") :
Amantium Irae (204, N. 5)amoris integratiS est, TER., And., 555; lovers'
quarrels are love's renewal.
2. A superlative adjective denned by a Partitive Gen. follows the
gender of the subj. when it precedes:
Indus, qul est omnium fluminum maximus, C., N.D., n. 52, 130 ; the
Indus, which is the greatest of all rivers.
Otherwise it follows the Genitive ; but this usage is post-classic :
Velocissimum omnium animalium est delphlnus, PLIN., N.H., ix. 8, 20 ;
the dolphin is the swiftest of all animals.
3. The Voc. is sometimes used by the poets in the predicate, either
by anticipation or by assimilation. (See 325, R. i.)
4. The neuter adjective is often used as the substantive predicate of
a masculine or feminine subject :
Triste lupus stabulls, V., EC., 3, 80 ; the wolf is a baleful thing to the
folds. Varium et mutaMle semper fSmina, V., A.,iv. 569 ; "a thing of
moods and fancies " is woman ever.
This construction is poetical ; in CICERO it is used with a few words
only ; such as extrgmum, commune :
Omnium rgrum (204, N. 4) mors [est] extrSmum, Cf. C., Fam:, vi. 21, 1;
death is the end of all things.
5. The demonstrative pronoun is commonly attracted into the gen-
der of the predicate :
Negat Epicurus ; hoc enim vostrum lumen est, C., Fin., IT. 22, 70 ; Epi-
curus says No ; for he is your great light. Ea n6n media sed nulla via*
est, L., xxxii., 21, 33 ; that is not a middle course, but no course at all.
I5O FORMS OF THE VERBAL PREDICATE.
But in negative sentences, and when the pronoun is the predicate,
there is no change. So in definitions :
Quid aut quale [est] Deus 1 Cf. C., N.D., \. 22, 60 ; what or what man-
ner of thing is God ? Nee sopor illud erat, V., A., in. 173. Quod ita erit
gestum, id lex erit, C., Ph., 1. 10, 26.
Exceptions are but apparent. C., O.,n. 38, 157.
6. The adjective predicate sometimes agrees with a substantive in
apposition to the subject. So especially when the appositive is oppidum,
dvitas, and the like :
Corioll oppidum captum [est], L.,n. 33, 9; Corioli-town was taken.
Corinthum, tstlus Graeciae lumen, exstinctum esse voluerunt, C.,lmp., 5,
11 ; they would have Corinth, the eye of all Greece, put out.
NOTES.— 1. Peculiar is the occasional use of the Fut. participle in -urum for
feminines in early Latin : Altero (gladiS) tS occisurum ait (Casina\ altero
vflicum. PL., Cos., 693. So True., 400.
2. Age is often used in early Latin as If it were an adverb, with the Plural ; occa-
sionally also cave : Age modo fabricaminl. PL., Cos., 488.
Akin is the use of a Voc. Sing, with a PI. verb, which is occasionally found in clas-
sical prose also : Turn Scaevola ; quid est, Cotta ? inquit, quid tacetis 1 c., 0.,
1-35,160.
The use of aliquis, some one of you, in this way is early : Aperlte aliquis actutum
ostium, TER., Ad., 634.
3. Other less usual constructions ad sgnsum are : the use of a neuter demonstrative
where a substantive of a different gender is expected, and the construction of r5s as if
it were neuter (both found also in CICEKO) ; the neuter Singular Humming up a preced-
ing Plural :
In Graecia music! floru§runt, discSbantque id (that [accomplishment]') omnes,
C., Tusc., i. 2, 4. Servitia repudiabat, ctiius (of which [class]) initiS ad eum
magnae cSpiae concurrSbant, S., C'., 56, 5. See also C., Div., 11. 57, 117.
Forms of the Verbal Predicate.
VOICES OF THE VERB.
212. There are two Voices in Latin — Active and Passive.
REMARK. — The Latin Passive corresponds to the Greek Middle, and,
like the Greek Middle, may be explained in many of its uses as a
Reflexive.
213. ACTIVE. — The Active Voice denotes that the action
proceeds from the subject. Verbs used in the Active Voice
fall into two classes, as follows :
Verbs are called Transitive when their action goes over to
an object (transeo, / go over} ; Intransitive when their ac-
tion does not go beyond the subject : occidere, to fell = to
(Transitive) ; occidere, to fall (Intransitive).
PASSIVE VOICE. 151
REMARK. -Properly speaking, a Transitive Verb in Latin is one that
forms a personal passive, but the traditional division given above has
its convenience, though it does not rest upon a difference of nature,
and a verb may be trans, or intrans. according to its use. So
(a) Transitive verbs are often used intransitively, in which case they
serve simply to characterize the agent. This is true especially of verbs
of movement ; as declinare, inclinare, movere, mutare, vertere, and the
like, and is found at all periods.
(b) On the other hand, many intrans. verbs are often used transi-
tively. This occurs also at all periods, but the Ace. is usually the inner
object (332).
(c) On the use of the Inf. active, where English uses the passive,
see 532, N. 2.
214. PASSIVE. — The Passive Voice denotes that the sub-
feet receives the action of the verb.
The instrument is put in the Ablative.
Virgls caedetur, C., Verr., in. 28, 69 ; he shall be beaten with rods.
[Ignis] lumine proditur su5, Ov., Her., 15, 8 ; the fire is betrayed by
its own light.
The agent is put in the Ablative with ab (a).
Ab amicis prSdimur, C., Cluent., 52, 143 ; we are betrayed by friends.
Virgls caesi tribunl ab legato sunt, L., xxix. 18, 13 ; the tribunes were
beaten with rods by the lieutenant.
REMARKS. — i. Intrans. verbs of passive signification are construed as
passives : fame per ire, C., Inv., n. 57, 172, to perish of hunger. So venire,
to be sold ; vapulare (chiefly vulgar), to be beaten, ab aliquo, by some one.
Ab reo fustibus [vapulavit], Cf. QUINT., ix. 2, 12; he was whacked with
cudgels by the defendant. SalvSbis a meo Cicerone, C., Att., vi. 2, 10 ;
/reeting to you from Cicero.
2. When the instrument is considered as an agent, or the agent as
an instrument, the constructions are reversed :
Vinci a Voluptate, C., Off., i. 20, 68 ; to be overcome by Dame Pleasure.
Patricils iuvenibus saepserant latera, L. , m. 37, 6 ; they had flanked him
with a guard of patrician youths.
The latter construction is very rare in CICERO, and seems to belong
pre-eminently to the historians.
Animals, as independent agents, are treated like persons.
A cane non magno saepe tenetur aper, Ov., Rem.Am., 422 ; a boar is
often held fast by a little dog.
Animals, as instruments, are treated like things.
Compare equ5 vehl, to ride a horse (to be borne by a horse), with in
equ5, on horseback.
152 VOICES OF THE VERB.
215. The person in whose interest an action is done is put
in the Dative. Hence the frequent inference that the person
interested is the agent. See 354.
1. With the Perfect passive it is the natural inference,
and common in prose.
Mih¥ res tota provisa est, C., Verr., iv. 42, 91 ; I have had the whole
thing provided for. Carmina nulla mihf sunt scrlpta, Ov., Tr., v. 12, 35;
poems — I have nor<,e written (I have written no poems).
2. With the Gerundive it is the necessary inference, and
the Dative is the reigning combination.
Nihil [est] homini tarn timendum quam invidia, C., Cluent., 3, 7 ; there
is iwthing that one has to fear to the same extent as envy.
216. The Direct Object of the Active Verb (the Accusa-
tive Case) becomes the Subject of the Passive.
Alexander Dargum vlcit, Alexander conquered Darius.
Bareus ab Alexandro victus est, Darius was conquered by Alexander.
217. The Indirect Object of the Active Verb (Dative Case)
cannot be properly used as the Subject of the Passive. The
Dative remains unchanged, and the verb becomes a Passive
in the Third Person Singular (Impersonal Verb). This
Passive form may have a neuter subject corresponding to the
Inner object (333, i).
Active: Miserl invident bonls, The wretched envy the well-to-do.
Passive : mibl invidetur, / am envied,
tibi invidgtur, thou art envied,
el invidetur, he is envied,
nobls invidetur, we are envied,
v5bls invidetur, you are envied,
ils invidetur, they are envied.
Nihil facile persuadetur invltls, QUINT., rv. 3, 10 ; people are not easily
persuaded of anything against their will. Anulls nostrls plus quam animis
ereditur, SEN., Sen., in. 15, 3 ; our seals aremore trusted than our souls
REMARKS. — i. In like manner a Gen. or Abl. in dependence upon an
active verb cannot be made the subj. of the passive.
2. On the exceptional usage of personal Gerundives from intrans.
verbs see 427, N. 5.
NOTES.— 1. The poets and later prose writers sometimes violate the rule, under
Greek influence or in imitation of early usage : Cur invideor ? (for cur invidetur
mib;( ?\, H.s A.P., 56 ; vix eauidem crSdar, Ov., Tr., m. 10, 35 ; persuasus videtur
ab aliqud, by some one.
REFLEXI VE — DEPONENT. 1 5 3
6886, [C.] ad Her., i. 6, 9. (Persuadeo hospitem, PETR., 62, 2, is perhaps an inten-
tional solecism.)
2. Similar liberties are taken by poets and late prose writers with the passive of
other intrans. verbs, such as concSdere, permittere, praecipere, prSniintiare : FS-
tis numquam concessa (= cui concessum est) mov6rl Camarma, V., A., in. 700.
218. REFLEXIVE. — Reflexive relations, when emphatic,
are expressed as in English :
Omne animal se ipsum diligit, C., Fin., v. 9, 24, Every living creature
loves itself.
But when the reflexive relation is more general, the pas-
sive (middle) is employed : lavor, / bathe, I bathe myself.
Purgarl [nequlvgrunt], Cf. L., xxiv. 18, 4 ; they could not clear thein-
selves. Cum in mentem vSnit, p3nor ad scribendum, C., Fam., ix. 15,4 ;
when the notion strikes me I set myself to writing.
NOTE.— Some of these verbs approach the deponents, in that the reflexive meaning
of the passive extends also to some active forms ; thus, from vehor, I ride, we get the
form vehSns, riding (rare) : AdulSscentiam per media's laudSs quasi quadrlgls
vehentem, C., Br., 97, 331.
219. As the active is often used to express what the subject
suffers or causes to be done, so the passive in its reflexive
(middle) sense is often used to express an action which the
subject suffers or causes to be done to itself : trahor, I let my-
self be dragged ; tondeor, / have myself shaved.
Duos MysSs [Insuisti] in culeum, Cf. C., Q.F., i. 2, 2, 5 ; you sewed two
Mysians into a sack (had them sewn). Sine gemitu aduruntur, C., Tusc.,
v. 27. 77 ; they let themselves be burned without a moan. Diruit, aedi-
ficat, H., Ep., i. i, 100 ; he is pulling down, he is building. Ipse docet
quid agam; fas est et ab hoste docSrl, Ov., M., iv. 428 ; he himself teaches
(me) what to do ; it is (but) right to let oneself be taught even by an
enemy (to take a lesson from a foe).
220. DEPONENT. — The Deponent is a passive form which
has lost, in most instances, its passive (or reflexive) significa-
tion. It is commonly translated as a transitive or intransi-
tive active : hortor, / am exhorting (trans.) ; morior, / am
dying (intrans.).
NOTES.— 1. A number of intrans. verbs show also a Perfect Part, passive used
actively ; not, however, in classical prose combined with esse to take the place of the
regular Perfect. On the use of such participles as substantives, see 167, N. i.
Quid causae excogitarl potest, cur te lautum voluerit, cenatuni noluerit
occldere ? C., Dei., 7, 20.
2. Many verbs show both active and deponent forms side by side. In this case the
active forme belong more often to early authors. See 163-167.
1 54 TENSES.
221. RECIPROCAL. — Reciprocal relations ("one another"}
are expressed by inter, among, and the personal pronouns,
nos, us ; vos, you ; sfi, themselves. Inter se amant, Tliey love
one another.
REMARKS. — i. Combinations of alter altenun, alius alium, uterque
alterum, and the like, also often give the reciprocal relation : some-
times there is a redundancy of expression.
Placet Stoicis homines hominum causa esse generates, ut ipsl inter s5
alii aliis prodesse possent, C., Off., i. 7, 22 ; it is a tenet of the Stoics
that men are brought into the world for the sake of men, to be a blessing
to one another.
2. Later writers use invicem or mutuo, inter s6, vicissim ; and early
Latin shows occasionally uterque utrumque.
Quae omnia hue spectant, ut invicem ardentius diligamus, PLIN.,^.,
vii. 20, 7 ; all these things look to our loving one another more fervently.
Uterque utrlquest cordl, TER., Ph., 800 ; either is dear to other.
TENSES.
222. The Tenses express the relations of time, embracing :
1. The stage of the action (duration in time).
2. The period of the action (position in time).
The first tells whether the action is going on, or finished.
The second tells whether the action is past, present, or future.
Both these sets of relations are expressed by the tenses of
the Indicative or Declarative mood — less clearly by the Sub-
junctive.
223. There are six tenses in Latin ;
1. The Present, denoting continuance in the present.
2. The Future, denoting continuance in the future.
3. The Imperfect, denoting continuance in the past.
4. The Perfect, denoting completion in the present.
5. The Future Perfect, denoting completion in the future.
6. The Pluperfect, denoting completion in the past.
224. An action may further be regarded simply as attained,
without reference to its continuance or completion. Contin-
uance and completion require a point of reference for defini-
tion ; attainment does not. This gives rise to the aoristic or
indefinite stage of the action, which has no especial tense-
TABLE OF TEMPO EAL BELATIONS. 155
form. It is expressed by the Present tense for the present ;
by the Future and Future Perfect tenses for the future;
and by the Perfect tense for the past.
Of especial importance are the Indefinite or Historical
Present and the Indefinite or Historical Perfect (Aorist),
which differ materially in syntax from the Definite or Pure
Present and Perfect.
225. The Tenses are divided into Principal and Histori-
cal. The Principal Tenses have to do with the Present and
Future. The Historical Tenses have to do with the Past.
The Present, Pure Perfect, Future, and Future Perfect are
Principal Tenses.
The Historical Present, Imperfect, Pluperfect, and His-
torical Perfect are Historical Tenses.
The Historical Tenses are well embodied in the following distich :
Talia tentabat, sic et tentaverat ante,
Vixque dedit victas utilitate manus. Ov., Tr., i. 3, 87.
226. Table of Temporal Relations.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
ACTIVE.
Continuance. Completion. Attainment.
PEES. scrlbS, scrips!, scrlbo,
I am writing. I have written. I write.
FUT. scribam, scrlpserS, scrlbam (scrlpserB),
/ shall be writing. I shall have written. I shall write.
PAST. scrlbSbam, scrlpseram, scrfpsl,
I was writing. I had written. I wrote.
PASSIVE.
Continuance. Completion. Attainment.
PRKS. scrlbitur (epistula), scrlpta est, scrlbitur,
The letter is written has been written, is written.
(writing). is written.
FUT. scrlbStur, scrlpta erit, scrlbetur,
The letter will be will have been, will be written.
written (writing). will be written.
PAST. BcrlbSbatur, scrlpta erat- scrlpta est,
The letter was writ- had been written, was written,
ten (writing). was written.
156 PRESENT TENSE.
REMARK. — The English passive is ambiguous. The same form is cur-
rently used for continuance, attainment, and completion. The context
alone can decide. A convenient test is the substitution of the active.
( Continuance, Some one was writing a letter.
A letter was written : •< Completion, Some one had written a letter.
' Attainment, Some one wrote a letter.
Present Tense.
227. The Present Tense is used as in English of that
which is going on now (Specific Present), and of statements
that apply to all time, (Universal Present).
Specific Present :
Auribus teneo lupum, TER., Ph., 506 ; lam holding a wolf by tlie ears.
Universal Present :
Probitas laudatur et alget, Juv., i. 74 ; honesty is bepraised and freezes.
Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, H., 0., in. 2, 13 ; sweet and seemly
'tis to die for fatherland.
50 regularly of the quoted views of authors, the inscriptions of
books, etc. :
D6 iuvenum amore scribit Alcaeus, C., Tusc., iv. 33, 71 ; Alcaeus writes
concerning the love of youths.
NOTES.— 1. The Specific Pr. is often to be translated by the English Progressive
Present. The Universal Pr. is Aoristic, true at any point of time.
2. As continuance involves the notion of incompleteness the Pr. (see 233) is used of at-
tempted and intended action (Present of Endeavor). But on account of the double use
of the Pr. this signification is less prominent and less important than in the Impf . Do
not mistake the Endeavor which lies in the verb for the Endeavor which lies in the tense.
Perlculum vltant, C., Rose. Am., 1. 1 ; they are trying to avoid danger. In the
example sometimes cited : Qulntus frater Tusculanum venditat, C., Att., 1. 14, 7 ;
Brother Quintus is " trying to sell " his Tusculan villa ; vSnditare itself means to
offer for sale. Translate : intends to offer for sale, if the notion lies in the Tense.
3. The Pr. when used with a negative often denotes Resistance to Pressure (233) ; this
is, however, colloquial : Tac6 : non tace~, PL., Cos., 826 ; keep quiet! I WON'T.
4. The ambiguity of our English passive often suggests other translations. Use and
Wont make Law ; hence the frequent inference that what is done is what ought to be
done ; what is not done is not to be done : (Deus) nee bene promeritis capitur, nee
tangitur Ira, LUCB., u. 651 ; God is not to be inveigled by good service, nor touched by
anger.
228. The Present Tense is used more rarely than in English
in anticipation of the future, chiefly in compound sentences :
51 vincimus, omnia tuta erunt, S., C., 58, 9 ; if we conquer (— shall con-
quer) everything will be safe. Antequam ad sententiam rede5 d5 me
pauca dlcam, C., Cat., iv. 10, 20 ; before I return to the subject, I will
IMPERFECT TENSE. 157
say a feu* things of myself . ExspectabS dum venit, TER., Eun., 206 ; 1
will wait all the time that he is coming, or, until he comes.
NOTES.— 1. This construction is archaic and familiar. It is very common in the
Comic Poets, very rare in CICERO and CAESAR, but more common later. Some usages
have become phraseological, as si vivo, if Hive, as Hive.
2. On the Pr. Indie, for the Deliberative Subjv., see 254, N. 2.
229. The Present Tense is used far more frequently than
in English, as a lively representation of the past (Historical
Present) :
Cohortis incSdere iubet, S., C., 60, 1 ; he orders the cohorts to advance.
Maturat proficlscl, CAES., B. G., i. 7, 1 ; he hastens to depart.
REMARK. — Dam, while (yet), commonly takes a Pr., which is usually
referred to this head. Dum, so long as, follows the ordinary law, 571, ff .
Dum haec in colloquio geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est, CAES., /!<>'., i.
46, 1 ; while these things were transacting in the conference, word was
brought to Caesar.
230. The Present is used in Latin of actions that are con-
tinued into the present, especially with lam, now ; iam diu,
now for a long time ; iam pridem, now long since. In Eng-
lish we often translate by a Progressive Perfect.
(Mithridate's) annum iam tertium et vlcSsimum regnat, C., Imp., 3, 7 ;
Mithridates has been reigning no^o going on twenty-three years. Libe-
r£re vos a Philippe iam diu magis vultis quam audetis, L., xxxn. 21, 36;
you have this long time had the wish rather than (= though not) the
courage to deliver yourselves from Philip.
" How doe* your honor for this many a day?" SHAK., Ham., in. i, 91.
NOTES.— 1. The Pr. sometimes gives the resulting condition :
Qul mortem non timet, magnum is sibl praesidium ad beat am yltam com-
parat, C., Tusc., n. i, 2 ; he who fears not death gets for himself great warrant for a
happy life. (DIcunt) vincere (= victorem esse) bellC Romanum, L., n. 7, 2.
2. More free is this usage in the poets, sometimes under Greek influence :
AuctSre Phoebo gignor (yiyvoti.cn. = -yoi/os ei/tu) j baud generis pudet. SEN.,
Ag., 295.
VERGIL is especially prone to use a Pr. after a Past, denoting by the Past the cause,
by the Pr. the effect: Postquam altum tenuSre rates nee iam amplius ullae
adparent terrae, A., m. 192.
Imperfect Tense.
231. The Imperfect Tense denotes continuance in the
past: pugnabam, I was fighting.
The Imperfect is employed to represent manners, customs,
situations; to describe and to particularise. A good ex-
ample is TEE., And., 74 ff.
158 IMPERFECT TENSE.
The Imperfect and the Historical Perfect serve to illus-
trate one another. The Imperfect dwells on the process;
the Historical Perfect states the result. The Imperfect
counts out the items; the Historical Perfect gives the sum.
A good example is NEP., n. i, 3.
232. The two tenses are often so combined that the general
statement is given by the Historical Perfect, the particulars
of the action by the Imperfect :
(VerrSs) in forum vgnit ; ardebant ocull ; t5t5 ex ore crudelitas 5mine"bat,
C., Verr., v. 62, 161 ; Verres came into the forum, his eyes were bhtziny,
cruelty was standing out from his whole countenance.
233. The Imperfect is used of attempted and interrupted,
intended and expected actions (Imperfect of Endeavor}. It
is the Tense of Disappointment and (with the negative) of
Resistance to Pressure. (Mere negation is regularly Perfect. )
Curiam relinquebat, TAC., Ann., n. 34, 1; Tie was for leaving the
senate-house. [LSx] abrogabatur, C'f. L., xxxiv. i, 7 ; the law was to be
abrogated. Simul ostendebatur (an attempt was made to show) quomodo
c6nstituti5nem reperirl oportSret, [C.] ad Her., n. i, 2. DlcSbat (positive)
melius quam scrlpsit (negative) Hortensius, C., Or., 38, 132 ; Hortensius
spoke better than he wrote. Aditum n5n dabat, NEP., iv. 3, 3 ; he WOULD
not grant access (dedit, DID not). See also MART., xi. 105.
NOTES.— 1. The Impf. as the Tense of Evolution is a Tense of Vision. Bat in Eng-
lish, Impf. and Hist. Pf. coincide ; hence the various translations to put the reader in
the place of the spectator.
2. The continuance is in the mind of the narrator ; it has nothing to do with the
absolute duration of the action. The mind may dwell on a rapid action or hurry over
a slow one. With definite numhers, however large, the Hist. Pf. must be used, unless
there is a notion of continuance into another stage (overlapping).
(Gorgias) centum et novem vixit annos, QUINT., HI. i, 9 ; Gorgias lived one
hundred and nine years. Biennium ibi perpetuom misera ilium lull, TEK., Sec.,
87 ; / bore him there— poor me .'—for two long years together.
3. As the Tense of Disappointment, the Impf. is occasionally used, as in Greek, to
express a startling appreciation of the real state of things (Imperfect of Awakening).
Greek influence is not unlikely.
Tu aderas, TEK., Ph., 858 ; (so it turns out that) you were here (all the time).
Peream male si n6n optimum erat, H., S., H. i, 6 ; perdition catch me if that was
'not the best course (after all).
Hence the modal use of dSbSbam and poteram (254, K. 2).
234. The Imperfect is used as the English Pluperfect,
which often takes a progressive translation ; especially with
iam, iam din, iam dudum,
PERFECT TENSE. 159
lam dudum tibi adversabar, PL., Men., 420 ; Iliad long been opposing
you. (Archias) domicilium Romae multos iam annos [habebat], Cf. C.,
Arch., 4, 7 ; Archias had been domiciled at Home now these many years.
REMARK. — As the Hist. Pr. is used in lively narrative, so the Hist.
Inf. is used in lively description, parallel with the Imperfect (647).
Perfect Tense.
The Perfect Tense has two distinct uses :
i. Pure Perfect. 2. Historical Perfect (Aorist).
1. PURE PERFECT.
235. The Pure Perfect Tense expresses completion in the
Present, and hence is sometimes called the Present Perfect.
1. The Pure Perfect differs from the Historical Perfect, in that the
Pure Perfect gives from the point of view of the Present an instan-
taneous view of the development of an action from its origin in the
Past to its completion in the Present, that is, it looks at both ends of an
action, and the time between is regarded as a Present. The Historical
Perfect obliterates the intervening time and contracts beginning and
end into one point in the Past.
2. An intermediate usage is that in which the Perfect denotes au
action in the Past (Historical), whose effect is still in force (Pure).
236. Accordingly, the Perfect is used :
1 . Of an action that is now over and gone.
Viximus, C., Fam., xiv. 4, 5 ; we have lived (life for us has been}.
Filium unicum habeo, immo babul, TEB., Heaut., 94 ; I have an only
son — nay, have had an only son. Tempera quid faciunt : bane volo, tS
volul, MART., vi. 40, 4 ; what difference times make ! (Time is) I want
HER, (Time HAS BEEN) I wanted YOU.
2. Far more frequently of the present result of a more
remote action (resulting condition) :
Equum et mulum Brundisil tibi rellqul, C., Fam., xvi. 9, 3 ; Ihave left a
horse and mule for you at Brundusium — (they are still there). Perdidi
spem qua m5 oblectabam, PL., Rud., 222 ; I've lost the hope with which 1
entertained myself. Actumst, peristi, TER., Eun., 54; it is all over;
you're undone.
, REMARK. — The Pure Pf. is often translated by the English Pres-
ent : n6vl, / have become acquainted with, I knoiv ; memini, / have
recalled, ./ remember ; odl, / have conceived a hatred of, I hate ; cSn-
suevl, / have made it a rule, I am accustomed, etc.
l6o HISTORICAL PERFECT.
Oderunt hilarem tristgs tristemque iocosl, H., Ep., 1. 18, 89; the long-
faced hate the lively man, the jokers hate the long-faced man.
But the Aorist force is sometimes found :
Tac6, inquit, ante hoc n5vi qnam tu natus es, PHAED., v. g, 4 ; silence,
quoth he, I knew this ere that you were born.
NOTE.— The Pf . is used of that which has been and shall be (Sententious or Gnomic
Perfect, 242, N. i), but usually in poetry, from CATULLUS on, and frequently with an
indefinite adjective or adverb of number or a negative. It is seldom an Aorist (Greek).
Evertere domos totas optantibus ipsis dl facilSs, Juv., x. 7 ; whole houses at
the masters' own request the (.too) compliant gods overturn. N8mo repente fuit tor-
pissimus, Juv., 11. 83 ; none of a sudden (hath ever) reach(ed) the depth of baseness.
237. As the Present stands for the Future, so the Perfect
stands for the Future Perfect.
(Brfltus) si c5nservatus erit, vlcimus, C., Fam., xn. 6, 2 ; Brutus ! — if
HE is saved, we are victorious, we (shall) have gained the victory.
238. Habed or teneo, / hold, / have, with the Accusative
of the Perfect Participle Passive, is not a mere circumlocu-
tion for the Perfect, but lays peculiar stress on the mainte-
nance of the result.
Habeo statutum, Cf. C., Verr., in. 41, 95 ; I have resolved, and hold to
my resolution. Perspectum habeo, Cf. C., Fam., in. 10, 7 ; / have per-
ceived, and I have full insight. Excusatum habeas mS rogo, c6no doml,
MART., u. 79, 2 ; I pray you have me excused, J dine at home.
2.. HISTORICAL PERFECT.
239. The Historical or Indefinite Perfect (Aorist) states a
past, action, ivithout reference to its duration, simply as a
thing attained.
M115 donium venit, calceos et vestimenta mutavit, paulisper commoratus
est, C., Mil., 10, 28; Milo came home, changed shoes and garments, tar-
ried a little while. (Gorgias) centum et novem vlxit annos, QUINT., in. i,
9 (233, N. 2). V5nl, vldl, vlcl, SUET., lul., 37 ; I came, saw, overcame.
NOTE. — The Pf., as the "short hand " for the Plupf., is mainly post-Ciceronian, but
begins with CAESAR. It is never common: superioribus diebus nSna Caesaris
Iegi5 castra e5 Ioc5 posuit, CAES., B. C., in. 66, 2.
240. The Historical Perfect is the great narrative tense of
the Latin language, and is best studied in long connected
passages, and by careful comparison with the Imperfect.
See C., Off., in. 27, 100 ; Tusc., i. 2, 4.
PLUPERFECT TEKSE. — FUTURE TENSE. l6l
Pluperfect Tense.
241. The Pluperfect denotes Completion in the Past, and is
used of an action that was completed before another was be-
gun. It is, so to speak, the Perfect of the Imperfect. Hence
it is used :
1. Of an action just concluded in the past.
Modo Caesarem rggnantem vlderamus, C., Ph., n. 42, 108 ; we had just
seen Caesar on the throne.
2. Of an action that was over and gone.
Fuerat inimlcus, C., Red. in Sen., 10, 26 ; he had been my enemy.
3. Of a resulting condition in the past.
MassiliSnsSs portas Caesar! clauserant, CAES., B.C., i. 34, 4 ; the Mar-
seillese had shut their gates against Caesar. (Their gates were shut.)
REMARK. — When the Pf. of Resulting Condition is translated by
an English Pr. (236, 2, R.), the Plupf. is translated by an English Im-
perfect : nSveram, I had become acquainted with, I knew ; memineram,
I remembered ; 5deram, J hated ; cSnsuSveram, / w as accustomed, etc.
NOTES.— 1 . Not unf requently in early Latin, rarely in classical prose, but more often
in the poets, the Plupf. seems to be used as an Aorist ; so very often dlxerat :
Nil equidem tibi abstull. EV. At illud quod tib! abstuleras cedo, PL.,
Aul., 635. N5n sum ego qui fueram, PROP., 1. 12, 11. See Ov., 7V., HI. n, 23.
2. The Periphrastic Plupf. with habeo corresponds to the Perfect (238). It is
rare, and shows two forms, one with the Imperfect and one with the Plupf., the latter
being post-classical.
Equitatum, quern ex omul provincia coactum liabebat, praemittit. CAES.,
B. &., 1. 15, l. Multorum aures ilia lingua attonitas habuerat, VAL. M., m. 3.
Future Tense.
242. The Future Tense denotes Continuance in the Fut-
ure : scrlbam, / shall be writing.
The Future Tense is also used to express indefinite action
in the Future : scrlbam, / shall write.
REMARKS. — i. In subordinate clauses the Latin language is more
exact than the English in the expression of future relations.
Donee eris fellx, multSs numerabis amlcos, Ov., Tr., i. 9, 5 ; so long as
you shall be (are) happy, you will count many friends.
2. Observe especially the verbs vo!5, I will, and possum, I can.
Odero si potero; si n5n, invitus amabO, Ov., Am., in. n, 35 ; I will
hate if I shall be able (can) ; if not, I shall love against my will. Qui
11
1 62 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
adipisci vSram glSriam volet, iustitiae fungatur officiis, C., Off., IT. 13, 43 ;
whoso shall wish to obtain true glory, iet hirfi discharge the calls of
justice.
3. The Fut. is often used in conclusions, especially in CICERO :
Sunt ilia sapientis ; aberit igitur a sapiente aegritudS, C). , Ttisc. , in. 8, 18.
NOTES.— 1. The Fut. is used sometimes as a gnomic (236, N.) tense :
Haut facul fSmina invenietur bona, AFK., 7; unneth (= hardly) a woman shall be
found that's good. Et tremet sapiens et dolSbit, et expallescet, SEN., /:..)/., 71, 29.
2. Observe the (principally comic) use of the Future to indicate likelihood :
Verbnm hercle hoc vSrom erit, TEE., Eun., 732 ; this will be God't oicn truth.
243. The Future is used in an imperative sense, as in
English, chiefly in familiar language.
Tii nibil dice's, II., A. P., 385 ; you will (are to) say nothing (do you
say nothing). Cum volet accedes, cum te vltabit abibis, Ov., A. A., n.
529 ; u'hen she u-ants you, approach ; and when she avoids you, begone,
sir. N5n mgappellabis, si sapis, PL., Most., 515 ; see C., Fam., v. 12, 10.
Compare utetur and utatur, CORN., n. 3, 5.
Similar is the Future in Asseverations (comic).
Ita mS amabit luppiter, PL., Trin., 447 ; so help me God !
Future Perfect Tense.
244. The Future Perfect is the Perfect, both Pure and
Historical, transferred to the future, and embraces both
completion and attainment: fecero, TER., Ph., 882 ; I shall
have done it, or / shall do it (once for all) ; videro, TER.,
Ad., 538 ; I will see to it; profecerit, C., Fin., in. 4, 14;
it will prove profitable.
REMARKS. — i. Hence, when the Pf. is used as a Pr., the Fut. Pf.
is used as a Future : novero, / shall know; consueverO, / shall be ac-
customed; Odero, si potero, Ov., Am., in. n, 35 (242, R. 2).
2. In subordinate sentences, the Latin language is more exact than
the English in the use of the Fut. Perfect ; hence, when one action pre-
cedes another in the future, the action that precedes is expressed by the
Fut. Perfect.
Qui prior strinxerit ferrum, eius victoria erit, L., xxiv. 38, 5 ; who first
draws the sword, his shall be the victory.
3. The Fut. Pf. is frequently used in vol5, 1 will; n8l5, I tcill not;
possum, / can ; licet, it is left free ; libet, it is agreeable ; placet, it is the
pleasure ; whereas the English idiom familiarly employs the Present.
SI potuero, faciarn vobis satis, C., Br., 5, 21; if I can, I shall satisfy
yo-u.
PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 163
4. The Fut. Pf. in both clauses denotes simultaneous accomplish-
ment or attainment ; one action involves the other.
Qui Antonium oppresserit, is bellum confecerit, C., Fam., x. 19, 2 ;
he who shall^ have crushed (crushes) Antony, will have finished (will
finish) the ivar. [Ea] vitia qui fugerit, is omnia fere vitia vltaverit, 0.,
Or., 69, 231 ; Tie who shall have escaped these faults, ivill have avoided
almost all faults.
Sometimes, however, the first seems to denote antecedence, the second
finality. An Impv. is often used in the first claiise.
Immuta (verborum collocationem), perierit t5ta r§s, C., Or., 70, 232 ;
change the arrangement of the words, the whole thing falls dead.
NOTES.— 1. The independent use of the Fut. Pf. is characteristic of Comedy, but
occurs occasionally later in familiar style. Sometimes it gives an air of positiveness :
Bene merentl bene profuerit, male merenti par erit, PL., Capt.,vs ; good
desert shall have good issue ; HI desert shaft, have Us due. Ego eras hie er5 : eras
habuero, uxor, ego tamen convlvium, PL., Cos., 786. Nusquam facilius hane
iniserrimam vitam vel sustentabo vel abiecero, C., Alt., in. 19, l. See also C.,
Ac., ii. 44, 135 ; L., i. 58, 10.
2. The Periphrastic Fut. Pf. with habeo is rare. It corresponds to the Pf. and
Pluperfect.
Quod si fSceris, m5 maximo beneficiS de" vinctum habSbis, C., Att., xvi. 16 B. 9.
245. As the Future is used as an Imperative, so the Future
Perfect approaches the Imperative.
D6 tS tu videris ; ego dS mg ipse profitebor, C., Ph., u. 46, 118 ; do you
see to yourself ; I myself will define my position.
NOTE.— This is confined in CICERO almost entirely to videris, which is suspiciously
like the familiar Greek future o>//ei, and is used in the same way.
Periphrastic Tenses.
246. The Periphrastic Tenses are formed by combining
the various tenses of esse, to be, with participles and verbal
adjectives. See 129.
I. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION-ACTIVE VOICE.
247. The Periphrastic Tenses of the Active are chiefly com-
binations of esse and its forms with the so-called Future Par-
ticiple Active. The Future Participle is a verbal adjective
denoting capability and tendency. Compare amator and
amaturus. The translation is very various :
1. Scripturus sum, I am about to write, I am to write, I purpose to
write, lam likely to write.
2. Scripturus eram, / wajft about to write, etc.
164 PERIPHRASTIC TENSES.
3. Scrfpturus ful, I have been or was about to write (often = I should
have written).
4. Scrlpturus faeram, I had been about to write, etc.
5. Scripturus ero, 1 shall be about to write, etc.
6. Scripturus fuer5, / shall have made up my mind to ivritc, etc. (of
course very rare).
1. Fiet illud quod futurum est, C., Div., n. B/ 21 ; what is to be, willbe.
z. [E§x] non interfuturus naval! certaminl erat, L., xxxvi. 43, 9 ; the
king did not intend to be present at the naval combat.
3. Fascls ipsl ad me delaturl fugrunt, C., Ph., xiv. 6, 15 ; they them-
selves were ready to tender the fasces to me. DSditos ultinus cruciatibus
adfecturl fuerunt, L., xxi. 44, 4 ; they would have put the surrendered to
extreme tortures.
4. Maior Roman orum gratia fuitquam quanta futura Carthaginiensium
fuerat, L., xxn. 22, 19 ; the Romans'1 credit for this u-as y.reater than the
Carthaginians' would have been.
5. Eorinn apud qu5s aget aut erit acturus, mentes sensusque degustet,
C., Or., i. 52, 223 ; he must taste-and-test the state of mind of those be-
fore whom he will plead or will have to plead.
6. (Sapiens) non vlvet, si fuerit sine homine victurus, SEX., E.M., 9, 17;
The wise man will not continue to live, if he finds that he is to live
without human society. (The only example cited, and that doubtful.)
REMARKS. — i. The forms with sum, eram, and the corresponding
Subjv. forms with sim, essem, are much more common than those with
ful, etc., probably for euphonic reasons.
2. The Subjv. and Inf. scripturus sim, essem, fuerim, fuissem, scrlpturum
esse, ftiisse, are of great importance in subordinate clauses. (656.)
NOTES.— 1. The use of forem for essem appears first in SALLUST, but is not uncom-
mon in LIVT, and occurs sporadically later. Fore for esse is post-classical.
Dicit se vgnisse quaesitum pacem an bellum agitaturus foret, S., lug., 109, 2.
2. The periphrastic use of the Pr. Part, with forms of esse is rare, and in most
cases doubtful, as the question always arises whether the Part, is not rather a virtual
substantive or adjective. So with the not uncommon ut sis SciSns of the Comic Poets.
The effect of this periphrasis is to emphasise the continuance.
Nem6 umquam tarn sui despiciSns (desptser of self, self-depredator) fait quln
speraret melius s6 posse dlcere, C., Or., n. 89, 364.
li. PERIPHRASTIC TENSES OF THE PASSIVE.
A.— Of Future Relations.
248. The periphrases fatunim esse (more often fore) ut,
(that) it is to le that, and futurum fuisse ut, (that) it was
to be that, with the Subjunctive, are very commonly used to
take the place of the Future Infinitive active ; necessarily so
PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 165
when the verb forms no Future Participle. In the passive
they are more common than the Supine with Iri.
Spgro fore ut contingat id nobis, C., Tusc., i. 34, 82 ; / hope that we
shall have that good fortune . In fatls scriptum Vgientes [habgbant] fore
ut brevi a Gallis E5ma capergtur, C., Dir., i. 44, 100 ; the Veientes had
it written down in their prophetic books that Home would shortly be
taken by the Gauls.
REMARK. — Posse, to be able, and velle, to will, on account of their
future sense, do not require a periphrasis. In the absence of peri-
phrastic forms, the forms of posse are often used instead. (65(5, R.)
NOTES.— 1. These periphrases do not occur in early Latin.
2. Fore ut is used chiefly with Pr. and Impf. Subjv. ; Pf. and Plupf. are very
rare. (C., Aft., xvi. i6E. 1C.)
3. The form futurum fuisse Ut is used with passive and Snpineless verbs, to ex-
press the dependent apodosis of an unreal conditional sentence.
Nisi eo ipso tempore nuntil de Caesaris victoria essent allati, exlstima-
bant plgrique futurum fuisse utl (oppidum) amittergtur, CAES., B. e., m. 101, 3.
(056, 2.)
4. The Subjv. forms futurum sit, esset, fuerit ut, are used in the grammars to
supply the periphrastic Subjv. of passive and Supineless verbs (see 515, K. 2). Warrant
in real usage is scarce.
An utique futurum sit ut Carthaginem superent Roman! 1 QUINT, m. 8, ir
(not merely periphrastic).
249. In eo est, it is on the point, j ut> tjiaf (of^ with
??*' | was (Impersonal), j the subjunctive.
In eo [erat] ut (Pausanias) comprehendergtur, NEP.,IV. 5, 1 ; it was
on the point that Pausanias should be (P. was on the point of being)
arrested.
NOTE.— This phrase occurs in NEPOS and LIVY, seldom in earlier writers.
B.— Of Past Relations.
250. The Perfect Participle passive is used in combination
with sum, / am, and fill, / have been, I was, to express the
Pure Perfect and Historical Perfect of the Passive Voice.
Eram, / was, and fueram, / had been, stand for the Pluper-
fect ; and ero, 1 shall be, and fuero, 7 shall have been, for the
Future Perfect.
REMARKS. — i. Ful is the favorite form when the participle is fre-
quently used as an adjective : convlvium exQrnatum fuit, the banquet
was furnished forth ; ful is the rrtcexxary form when the Pf . denotes
that the action is ovgr,^uQ g0ne ; amatus ful, / have been loved (but I
1 66 TENSES IN LETTERS.
am loved no longer). THe same principle applies to fueram and fuerS,
though not so regularly.
Simulacrum 6 marmore in sepulcr o positum fait ; hoc quldam homo
nobilis deportavit, C., Dom., 43V111 ; a marble effigy WAS deposited in
the tomb ; a certain man of rank has carried it off. Arma quae fixa
in parietibus fuerant, ea sunt hum! inventa, C., Div., i. 34,74 ; the arms
which had been fastened to the walls were found on the ground. Quod
tib! fuerit persuasum, huic erit persuasum, C., Rose. Com., i,3 ; what is
(shall have proved) acceptable to you will be acceptable to him.
2. To be distinguished is that use of the Pf . where each element has
its full force, the Participle being treated as an adjective. In this case
the tense is not past.
Gallia est omnis dlvisa in partSs tr6s, CAES., B.G., i, 1.
NOTES. — 1. The fol, etc., forms are rarely found in CICERO, never in CAESAB, bat
are characteristic of LIVT and SAILUST.
Z. Forem for essem is common in the Comic Poets, occurs twice in CICERO'S letters
(Att., vn. 21,2 ; x. 14,8), never in CAESAR, but in LIVY and NEPOS is very common,
and practically synonymous with essem.
C.— Periphrastic Conjugation— Passive Voice.
25 1. i . The combination of the Tenses of esse, to be, with the
Gerundive (verbal in -ndus), is called the Periphrastic Conju-
gation of the Passive, and follows the laws of the simple conju-
gation (129). The idea expressed is usually one of necessity.
PraepOnenda [est] dlvitiis gloria, C., Top., 22,84 ; glory is to be pre-
ferred to riches.
2. According to the rule (217) the Gerundive of intransi-
tive verbs can be used only in the Impersonal form :
Parcendum est victls, The vanquished must be spared.
NOTES. — 1. The Gerundive is a verbal adjective, which produces the effect of a Pro-
gressive Participle. Whenever a participle is used as a predicate it becomes character-
istic, and good for all time. As amans not only = qul amat, but also = qul amet,
so amandus = qul ametur. Compare 438, R.
2. Forem for essem is post-classical and comparatively uncommon.
TENSES IN LETTERS.
252. The Eoman letter-writer not unfrequently puts him-
self in the position of the receiver, more especially at the
beginning and at the end of the letter, often in the phrase
Nihil erat (habebam) quod scriberem, / have nothing to write.
This permutation of tenses is never kept up long, and applies
cnly to temporary situations, never to gen?r?l statements.
MOODS. 167
Table of Permutations.
scrlbo, I am writing, becomes scribebam.
I write, " scrips!,
scrips!, I have written, " scripseram.
/ wrote, scripseram,
or remains unchanged.
scribam, / shall ivrite, scripturus eram.
The adverbial designations of time remain unchanged — or
heri, yesterday, becomes pridie.
hodie, to-day, quo die" has Htteras cledl, dabam.
eras, to-morrow, " posters die, postridie".
nunc, "now, " turn.
Formias me" continue recipere cogitabam, C., Alt., vu. 15, 3 ; lam think-
ing of retiring forthwith to Formiae. Cum mih! dixisset Caecilius
puerum s6 Romam mittere, haec scrips! raptim, C., Alt., n. 9, 1 ; as Caecil-
ius has told me that he is sending a servant to Rome, I write in a
hurry. (Litteras) eram daturus postridie e! qu! mih! primus obviam
vSnisset, C., Ait., n. 12, 4 ; I will give the letter to-morrow to the first
man that comes my way.
NOTE. — CICERO is much more consistent in this tense-shifting than PLINY ; and
exceptions are not numerous proportionally : Ego etsi nib.il habeo quod ad t8
scribam, scribe tamen quia t€cum loqu! videor, 0., Ait., xii. 53.
MOODS.
253. Mood signifies manner. The mood of a verb signifies
the manner in which the predicate is said of the subject.
There are three moods in Latin :
1. The Indicative.
2. The Subjunctive.
3. The Imperative.
NOTE.— The Infinitive form of the verb is generally, hut improperly, called a mood.
The Indicative Mood.
254. The Indicative Mood represents the predicate as a
reality. It is sometimes called the Declarative Mood, as the
mood of direct assertion.
The use of the Latin Indicative diifers little from the English.
REMARKS. — i. The Latin language expresses possibility and power,
obligation and necessity, and abstract relations generally, as facts;
whereas, our translation often implies the failure to realise. Such ex-
l68 INDICATIVE MOOD.
pressions are : debeo, / ought, it is my duty : oportet, it behooves;
necesse est, it is absolutely necessary ; possum, / can, I have it in my
power ; eonvenit, it is fitting ; par, aequom est, it is fair; Infinltum,
endless; difficile, hard to do ; longum, tedious; and many others ; also
the Indie, form of the passive Periphrastic Conjugation. Observe the
difference between the use of the Inf. in Eng. and in Latin after past
tenses of debeo, possum, oportet, etc.
Possum persequi permulta oblectamenta r6rum rusticarum, C., Cat.M.,
16, 55 ; / might rehearse very many delights of country life. Longum
est persequi militates asinorum, C., N.D., n. 64, 159 ; it would be tedious
to rehearse the useful qualities of asses (I will riot do it). Ad mortem
te duci oportebat, C., Cat., I. i, 2 ; it behooved you to be (you ought to
have been) led to execution (you were not). Volumnia debuit in t8
officiosior esse, et id ipsum, quod fecit, potuit dlligentius facere, C., Fam.,
xiv. 16 ; it ivas Volumnia 's duty to be (V. ought to have been) more at-
tentive to you ; and the little she did do, she had it in her power to do
(she might have done) more carefully. Quae condicio non accipienda fuit
potius quam relinquenda patria 1 C., Ait., viu. 3, 3 ; what terms ought
•not to have been accepted in preference to leaving thy country ? [Eum]
vivum illinc exire non oportuerat, C., JU'ur., 25, 51 ; he ought never to
have gone out thence alive.
The Pf. and Plupf . always refer to a special case.
2. The Impf. as the Tense of Disappointment is sometimes used in
these verbs to denote opposition to a present state of things : debe-
bam, / ought (but do not) ; poteras, you could (but do not). These may
be considered as conditionals in disguise. (See R. 3.)
Poteram morbos appellare, sed non conveniret ad omnia, C., Fin., in. 10,
85 ; I might translate (that Greek word) " diseases," but that would not
suit all the cases (poteram si conveniret). At poteras, inquis, melius
mala ferre silendo, Ov., Tr., v. i, 49 ; " But," you say, " you could (you do
not) bear your misfortunes better by keeping silent" (poteras si sileres).
3. The Indie, is sometimes used in the leading clause of condi-
tional sentences (the Apodosis), thereby implying the certainty of the
result, had it not been for the interruption. The Indie, clause gener-
ally precedes, which is sufficient to show the rhetorical character of the
construction.
With the Impf. the action is often really begun :
Labebar longius, nisi me" retinuissem, C., Leg., i. 19, 52 ; I was letting
myself go on (should have let myself go on) too far, had I not checked
myself. Oinnlno supervacua erat doctrina, si natura sufficeret, QUINT.,
n. 8, 8 ; training were wholly superfluous, did nature suffice. Prae-
clare viceramus, nisi Lepidus recgpisset Antonium, C. , Fam. , xn. 10, 3 ; we
had (should have) gained a brilliant victory, had not Lepidus received
Antony.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 169
In all these sentences the English idiom requires the Subjv., which
is disguised by coinciding with the Indie, in form, except in " were."
4. In general relative expressions, such as the double formations,
quisquis, no matter who, quotquot, no matter how many, and all forms in
-cumque, -ever, the Indie, is employed in classical Latin where we may
use in English a Subjv. or its equivalent : quisquis est, no matter who he
is, be, may be ; qualecumque est, whatever sort of thing it is, be, may be.
Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentSs, V., A., n. 49 ; whatever
it (may) be, I fear the Danai even when they bring presents.
CICERO has occasional exceptions (Ideal Second Person or by attraction) to this rule,
and later writers, partly under Greek influence, frequently violate it. Exceptions in
early Latin are not common.
NOTES.— 1. CICERO introduces (n5n) putaram, " / should (not) have thought so,"
and malueram, I could have preferred. LUCAN and TACITUS alone imitate the latter ;
the former was never followed.
Malnei-am, quod erat susceptum ab illls, silentio transiri, C., Alt., n. 19,3.
Feriam tua viscera, Magne ; malueram socerl, LUCAN, vni. 521.
a. In early Latin, occasionally in the more familiar writings of CICERO, and here and
there later we find the Pr. Indie, (in early Latin occasionally the Fut.) used in place
of the Subjv. in the Deliberative Question.
Compression palma an porrecta ferio 1 PL., Cos., 405. Advolone an maneo ?
C., . i //. , xui. 40, 2. Quoi dono lepidum novoin libellum, CAT., i, 1.
Subjunctive Mood.
255. The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicate as an
idea, as something merely conceived in the mind (abstracts
from reality).
REMARK. — The Latin Subjv. is often translated into English by the
auxiliary verbs may, can, must, might, could, would, should. When
these verbs have their full signification of possibility and power, obliga-
tion and neces^ty, they are represented in Latin by the corresponding
verbs, thus : may, can, might, could by the forms of posse, to be able,
licet, it is left free ; will and would by velle, to will, to be willing ; must,
by debeo or oportet (of moral obligation), by necesse est (of absolute
obligation).
Nostras iniurias nee potest nee possit alius ulclsci quani vos, L., xxix.
18, 18 ; our wrongs no other than you has the power or can well have
the power to avenge.*
NOTE.— In the Latin Subjv. are combined two moods, the Subjv. proper, and the
Optative, sometimes distinguished as the moods of the will and the wish. This fusion
has rendered it difficult to define the fundamental conceptions of certain constructions.
* In this unique passage nee pctest denies with the head, nee possit refusea to
believe with the heart.
I/O POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.
256. i. The realisation of the idea may be in suspense, or it
may be beyond control. The first, or purely Ideal Subjunc-
tive, is represented by the Present and Perfect Tenses ; the
second, or Unreal, is represented by the Imperfect and Plu-
perfect.
NOTES.— 1. The Subjv., as the name implies (subiung5, / sufyoin), is largely used
in dependent sentences, and will be treated at length in that connection.
2. The following modifications of the above principles must be carefully observed :
(a) The Romans, in lively discourse, often represent the unreal as ideal, that which
is beyond control as still in suspense. (596, K. i.)
(&) In transfers to the past, the Impf. represents the Pr., and the Plunf. the Pf. Sub-
junctive. (510.)
2. The idea may be a view, or a wish. In the first case
the Subjunctive is said to be Potential, in the second case
Optative. The Potential Subjunctive is nearer the Indica-
tive, from which it differs in tone ; the Optative Subjunc-
tive is nearer the Imperative, for which it is often used.
Potential Subjunctive.
257. i. The Potential Subjunctive represent? the opinion
of the speaker as an opinion. The tone varies from vague
surmise to moral certainty, from " may " and " might " to
" must." The negative is the negative of the Indicative, non.
2. The Potential of the Present or Future is the Present
or Perfect Subjunctive. The verification is in suspense, and
so future ; the action may be present or future : with Perfect
sometimes past.
Velim, I should wish; nolim, I should be unwitting ; malim, I should
prefer ; dicas, you would say ; credas, you would believe, you must be-
lieve ; dicat, dlxerit aliquis, some one may undertake to say, go so far as
to say.
Caedi dlscipulos minims velim, QUINT., i. 3, 13; I should by no means
like pupils to be flogged. Tu Platonem nee nimis vald§ nee nimis saepe
laudaveris, C., Leg., in. i, 1 ; you cant jwa-ise Plato too much nor too
often.
NOTES.— 1. The Pf . Subjv. as a Potential seems to have been very rare in early Latin.
CICERO extended the usage slightly and employed more persons ; thus First Person PI.
and Second Sing, occur first in CICERO. From CICERO'S time the usage spreads, per-
haps under the influence of the Greek Aorist. It was always rare with Deponents and
Passives. Another view regards this dlxerit as a Fnt. Pf . Indicative.
2. The Potential Subjv. is sometimes explained by the ellipsis of an Ideai or, of an
OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. I 71
Unreal Conditional Protasis. But the free Potential Subjv. differs from an elliptical
conditional sentence in the absence of definite ellipsis, and hence of definite translation.
Compare the two sentences above with :
Eum qul palain est adversarius facile cavendo (si caveas) vltare possls,
C., Verr., 1. 15, 39 ; an open adversary you can readily avoid by caution (if you are cau-
tious). Nil ego contulerim iucundo sanus (= dum sanus ero) aniico, n., S., i. 5,
44 ; there is naught I should compare to an agreeable friend, while I am in my sound
senses.
3. The Potential Subjv., as a modified form of the Indie., is often found where the
Indie, would be the regular construction. So after quanquam (607, R. i).
258. The Potential of the Past is the Imperfect Subjunc-
tive, chiefly in the Ideal Second Person, an imaginary " you."
Crgder6s victos, L., n. 43, 9 ; you would, might, have thought them
beaten. Haud facile discerneres utrum Hannibal imperatorl an exercitul
carior esset, L., xxi. 4, 3 ; not readily could you have decided whether
Hannibal ivas dearer to general or to army. Mirargtur qul turn cerneret,
L., xxxiv. 9, 4 ; any one who saw it then must have been astonished.
Vellem, 1 should have wished ; nollem, / should have been unwilling ;
mallem, / should have preferred (it is too late).
NOTES.— 1. With vellem, nollem, mallem, the inference points to non-fulfilment
of the wish in the Present (261, R.) ; with other words there is no such inference.
2. The Unreal of the Present and the Ideal of the Past coincide. What is unreal of
a real person is simply ideal of an imaginary person. The Impf. is used as the tense
of Description.
The Aoristic Pf . Subjv. and the Plupf. Subjv. are rarely used as the Ideal of the Past:
Hi ambo saltus ad Libuos Gallos dSduxerint (var. deduxissent), L., xxi. 38, 7.
Ea qua minimum crSdidisset (c5nsul) resistebant hostSs, L., xxxn. 17, 4.
259. The Mood of the Question is the Mood of the ex-
pected or anticipated answer (462). Hence the Potential
Subjunctive is used in questions which serve to convey a
negative opinion on the part of the speaker.
ftuis dubitet (— n6m5 dubitet) quin in virtute dlvitiaesint ? G., Par ad.,
vi. 2, 48 ; who can doubt that true icealth consists in virtue ? (No one.)
Quis tulerit Gracchos dS sgditione querentes 1 Juv., n. 24 ; who could bear
the Gracchi complaining of rebellion ? (No one.) Apud exercitum
fuerls1? C., Mur., 9, 21 ; can you have been with the army ? Hoc tantum
bellum quis umquam arbitrarStur ab uno imperatore cSnficl posse? C.,
Imp., n, 31 ; who would, could, should have thought that this great war
could be brought to a close by one general ?
Optative Subjunctive.
260. The Subjunctive is used as &nj}ptative or wishing
ood.
; A^<* MC\£J t^Jk?
^teccxb^
1/2 OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
The regular negative is ne". Non is used chiefly to negative a single
word ; but very rarely in the classical period. A second wish may be
added by neque or nee (regularly if a positive wish precedes), but this is
also rare in the classical period, and is denied for CAESAR.
The Pr. and Pf. Subjv. are used when the decision is in suspense,
no matter how extravagant the wish ; the Impf. and Plupf. are used
when the decision is adverse. The Pf. is rare and old.
Stet haec urbs, C'., Mil., 34, 93 ; may this city continue to stand ! Quod
di omen avertant, C., Ph., in. 14, 35 ; which omen may the gods a cert.
Ita di faxint (= fecerint), PL., Poen., 911 ; the gods grant it ! N6 istuc
luppiter optimus maximus sirit (= slverit) ! L., xxxiv. 24, 2; may Jupiter,
supremely great and good, suffer it not !
261. The Optative Subjunctive frequently takes nt (ar-
chaic and rare), utinam, utinam ne, utinam non ; also 6 si,
oh if (poetical and very rare) ; qul (chiefly in early Latin
and in curses).
Valeas beneque ut tibi sit, PL., Poen., 912 ; farewell ! God bless you !
Utinam modo conata efficere possim, C., Alt., iv. 16; may I but have it
in my power to accomplish my endeavours. Utinam revlviscat frater!
GELL., x. 6, 2 ; would that my brother would come to life again ! Utinam
inserere ioc&s moris esset, QUINT., n. 10, 9; would that it icere usual to in-
troduce jokes ! Ulud utinam ne vSrS scriberem, C., Farn., v. 17, 3 ; u-ould
that what I am writing were not true ! Utinam susceptus non essem, C.,
Alt., in. -ii, 8; would I had not been born ! (CICERO'S only example of
n5n.) 6 mini praeteritos referat si liippiter annos, V., A., vni. 560; 0 if
Jove were to bring me back the years that are gone by .'
REMARK. — For the wish with adverse decision, vellem and mallem
(theoretically also nollem) may be used with the Impf. and sometimes
(especially vellem) with the Plupf. Subjunctive.
Vellem adesse posset Panaetius! C., Tusc., i. 33, 81; would that Pa-
naetius could be present ! Vellem me ad c6nam invItassCs, C., Fam., xn.
4, 1 ; would that you had invited ME to your dinner-party.
So velim, nolim, etc., for the simple wish (546, R. 2).
Tuam mini dari velim eloquentiam, C., N.D., n. 59, 147 ; I could wish
your eloquence given to me.
NOTES.— 1. Utinam was perhaps originally an Interrogative, How, pray? If so,
it belongs partly to the potential ; hence the frequent occurrence of n6n. 6 si (occasion-
ally 81, V., A., vi. 187) introduces an elliptical conditional sentence, which is not intended
to have an Apodosis. When the Apodosis comes, it may come in a different form ; as
in the example : V., A., vm. 560, 568.
2. The Impf. Subjv. is occasionally used in early Latin to give an unreal wish in the
Past. This is almost never found in the later period.
Utinam te di prius perderent, quam periistl 6 patria tnS, PL., Capt., 537.
Tune mini vita foret, TIB., 1. 10, n.
OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 1/3
262. The Optative Subjunctive is used in asseverations :
Ita vivam ut maximos sumptus facio, C., Att., v. 15, 2 ; as Hive, I am
spending very largely (literally, so may I live as I am making very great
outlay). Moriar, si magis gauderem si id mihi accidisset, C., Att., vin.
6, 8 ; may I die if I could be more glad if that had happened to me.
NOTE.— The Fut. Indie, in this sense is rare : Sic me dl amabunt tit m8 tuarum
miseritumst fortunarum, TEB., Heaut., 463.
263. The Subjunctive is used as an Imperative :
1. In the First Person Plural Present, which has no Im-
perative form :
Am6mus patriam, C., Sest., 68, 143; let us love our country. N8
difficilia optSmus, C., Verr., iv. 7, 15 ; let us not desire what is hard to do.
NOTE. — In the First Person Singular, the command fades into the wish.
2. In the Second Person.
(a) In the Present chiefly in the Singular, and chiefly of an
imaginary " you " :
Ist5 bon5 utare, dum adsit, cum absit, nS requlras, C., Cat.M., 10, 33 ;
you must enjoy that Messing so long as 'tis here, when it is gone you
must not pine for it.
NOTE. — The Comic Poets use the Pr. negatively very often of a definite person,
sometimes combining it with an Impv. : IgnSsce, irata ng si8s, PL., Am., 924 ; but
in the classical period such usage is rare, and usually open to other explanations ; a
definite person may be used as a type, or the sentence may be elliptical.
(b) In the Perfect negatively :
Ne transierls Hiberum, L., xxi. 44, 6; do not cross the Ebro. NS vos
mortem timuerltis, C., Tusc., i. 41, 98; have no fear of death !
3. In the Third Person Present (regularly) :
Suum quisque noscat ingenium, C., Off., i. 31, 114 ; let each one know
his own mind. Donis iinpii n6 placare audeant deos, C., Leg., n. 16, 41 ;
et the wicked not dare to try to appease the gods with gifts.
NOTE.— The Pf. in this usage is very rare. S., lug., 85, 47 ; TAC., Ann., iv. 32, 1.
264. The Subjunctive is used as a Concessive :
Sit fur, C., Verr., v. i, 4 ; (granted that] he be a thief. Fuerit (mains
clvis), C., Verr., i. 14, 37; (suppose) that he was a bad citizen.
For other examples with ut and n6, see 608.
NOTE.— The past tenses are very rarely ueed concessively ; see C., 7V«?.,m- 19, 75
(Impf.) ; Sest., 19, 43 (Plupf.).
1/4 IMPERATIVE MOOD.
265. The Subjunctive is used in Questions which expect
an Imperative answer (coniunctivus deliberative).
Genuine questions are commonly put in the First Person,
or the representative of the First Person :
TJtrum super biam prius commemorem an crudelitatem, C., Verr., i. 47,
122 ; shall I mention the insolence first or the cruelty ? Magna fuit con-
tentio utrum moenibus s6 defenderent an obviam irent hostibus, NEP., i. 4,
4 ; there was a, great dispute ivhether they should defend themselves
behind the watts or go to meet the enemy. (TTtrum nos dgfendamus an
obviam eamus ?) [Example of Third Person, 428, N. i.]
Ehetorical questions (questions which anticipate the
answer), under this head, are hardly to be distinguished
from Potential.
Qu5 mS nunc vertam1? TTndique custodior, C., Att., x. 12, 1 ; whither
shall I now turn ? Sentinels on every side. Quid agerem? C., Sest.,
19, 42 ; what wastl to do 9
REMARK. — The answer to the Deliberative Question is the Iiupv, or
the Imperative Subjv. of the Present (263, 2) or Past (272, 3).
Imperative Mood.
266. The Imperative is the mood of the will; It wills
that the predicate be made a reality. The tone of the Im-
perative varies from stern command to piteous entreaty. It
may appear as a demand, an order, an exhortation, a per-
mission, a concession, a prayer.
Abl in malam rem, PL., Capt., 877 ; go (to the mischief), and be
hanged. Compesce mentem, II., 0., i. 16, 22 ; curb your temper. Da mini
hoc, mel meum! PL., Trin., 244 ; give me this, honey dear !
267. The Imperative has two forms, known as the First
and the Second Imperative (also, but less accurately, as the
Present and Future Imperative). The First Imperative has
only the Second Person ; the Second Imperative has both
Second and Third Persons. The First Person is represented
by the Subjunctive (2G3, i).
REMARK. — Some verbs have only the second form. This may bo due
to the signification : so sclto, know thou ; memento, remember thou ;
and liabeto, in the sense of know, remember.
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 1/5
On violation of Concord with the Imperative, see 211, N. 2.
NOTE.— The use of the Pronouns tu, VOS, etc., with the Impv., is colloquial, hence
common in Comedy ; or solemn : see V., A., vi. 95, 365, 675, 834, etc.
268. i. The First Imperative looks forward to immediate
fulfilment (Absolute Imperative) :
Special : Patent portae ; proficiscere, C., Cat., i. 5, 10, Open
stand the gates; depart.
General: lustitiam cole et pietatem, C., Rep., vi. 16, 16,
Cultivate justice and 2Jiety.
2. The Second Imperative looks forward to contingent
fulfilment (Relative Imperative), and is chiefly used in laws,
legal documents, maxims, recipes, and the like : likewise in
familiar language.
REGIO IMPERIO DUO SUNTO ; IIQUE CONSULES APPELLAMINO (130, 5, c);
NEMINI PARENTO; OLLIS (104, III. N. 1) SALUS POPULJ SUPREMA LEX ESTO,
C., Leg., in. 3,8 ; there shall le two (officers) with royal power ; (hey
shall le called consuls ; they are to obey no one ; to them the welfare of
the people must le the paramount law. Rem vobis prSponam : vos earn
penditote, C., Verr., iv. i, 1 ; I will propound the matter to you ; do you
thereupon perpend it. Percontatorem fugito, nam garrulus idem est, H.,
Ep., 1. 1 8, C9 ; avoid your questioner, for he is a tell-tale too.
269. STRENGTHENING WORDS. — The Imperative is often strengthened and em-
phasised by the addition of Adverbs, fossilised Imperatives, Phrases, etc. : age, agite,
agedum, agitedum, come ; enclitic dum, then ; modo, only ; iamdiiduia, at once ;
proinde, veil, then ; quin, why not f sane", certainly ; amabo, obsecro, quaesd,
please ; sis (= si vis), sultis (- si voltis), sodes (= si audes), if you please. Most
of these belong to familiar language, and are therefore found in great numbers in
Comedy and in CICERO'S letters. In the classical prose, and even later, they are not
common. Dum in classical times is confined to agedum ; quin is cited twice in
CICERO (Mil., 29, 79 ; Rose. Com., 9, 25), and rarely later. lamdudum begins with VER-
CIL, and belongs to poetry and late prose. Sane is not cited for the classical period.
Sultis is confined to early Latin ; and socles occurs but once in CICERO (Alt., vn. 3, 11).
Mittite, agedum, Iggat8s, L., xxxvni. 47, 11. Quin tu i modo, PL-, Cos., 755.
NOTE.— On the violation of Concord with age, see 211, N. 2.
270. NEGATIVE OE THE IMPERATIVE. — i. The regular neg-
ative of the Imperative is ne (neve, neu), which is found with
the Second Imperative ; with the First Imperative, it is
poetical or colloquial.
Hominem mortuum in urbe n5 sepelito nSve uritS, C., Leg., n. 23, 58;
thou shalt not Iniry nor lurn a dead man in the city. Impius n6 audet5
placare donis Iram deorum, C., Ley., u. 9, 22 ; the impious man must not
1/6 IMPERATIVE MOOD.
dare attempt to appease by gifts the anger of the gods. Tu ng cSde
malis, sed contra audentior It5, V., A., vi. 95 ; yield not thou to misfor-
tunes, but go more boldly (than ever) to meet them.
REMARKS. — i. Non may be used to negative a single word:
A Iggibus non recgdamus, C., Cluent., 57, 155 ; let us not recede from
(let us stick to) the laws. Opus poliat lima, non exterat, Of. QUINT., x. 4,
4 ; let the file rub the work up, not rub it out.
2 Instead of nS with the First Imperative was employed either noli
with the Infinitive (271, 2) ; or nS with the Pf. Subjv., but the latter is
very rare in elevated prose (263, 2, b). On ng with Pr. Subjv. see 263, 2, a.
NOTE.— The use of n5n with the actual Impv. is found only in OVID ; but the addi-
tion of a second Impv. by neque, nee, instead of nSve, neu, begins in classical times
(C., Att., xn. 22, 3), and becomes common later. The use of neque (nee), nihil,
nemS, nullus with the Subjv. in an Impv. sense has recently been claimed for the
Potential Subjv. (must, 257, i) on account of the negative.
271. PERIPHRASES. — i. Cura (curato) ut, take care that ;
fac (facito) ut, cause tliat ; fac (facito), do, with the Sub-
junctive, are common circumlocutions for the Positive Im-
perative.
Cura ut quam primum (303, R. i) venias, C., Fam., iv. 10, 1 ; manage
to come as soon as possible. Fac cogites, C., Fam., xi. 3, 4, Do reflect !
NOTES.— 1. FacitO is almost wholly confined to early Latin, especially PLAUTUS ;
BO also curatS.
2. Early Latin also shows vidB and vidSt5 with Subjv. TERENCE introduces
VOlo, velim, with Subjv., which is found also in later times ; as, C., Fam., ix. 12, 2.
2. Cavl and cavl (caveto) n6, ~beware lest, with the Sub-
junctive, and noli, be unwilling, with the Infinitive, are cir-
cumlocutions for the Negative Imperative (Prohibitive) . Fac
ne is also familiarly used.
Cav§ festines, C., _Fam.,xvi. 12, 6 ; do not be in a hurry. Tantrum
cum finges n6 sis manifesta caveto, Ov., A. A., in. 801; only when you
pretend, beware that you be not detected. Noli, amabo, verberare lapidem,
n6 perdas mar^m, PL., Cure., 197 ; don't beat a stone, I pray you, lest
you spoil your hand. Fac nS quid aliud cures h5c tempore, C.,Fam.,
xvi. n,l; see that you pay no attention to anything else, at this time.
NOTES.— 1. Rare and confined to early Latin is the use of cav§ with any but the
second person. Cf. PL., Aitl., 660 ; TEK., And., 403.
2. Other phrases are those with vid6 ng and ciirato n6, with Subjv. ; comperce,
compgsce with Inf. (all ante-classical) ; parce, mitte, omitte with Inf. (poetical and
post-classical) ; nSlim with Subjv. (Cic.) ; fuge with Inf. (Hon.) ; absiste with Inf.
(VERG.).
IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 1 77
272. REPRESENTATIVES or THE IMPERATIVE. — i. Instead
of the Positive Imperative, may be employed :
(a) The Second Person of the Present Subjunctive (263, 2).
(b) The Second Person of the Future Indicative (243).
(c) The Third Person of the Present Subjunctive (263, 3).
2. Instead of the Negative Imperative (Prohibitive), may
be employed :
(a) The Second Person of the Present Subjunctive, with n6 (263, 2, N.).
(b) The Second Person of the Perfect Subjunctive, with ng (263, 2).
(c) The Second Person of the Future, with non (243).
(d) The Third Person of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with
ng (263, 3).
REMARK. — The Pr. Subjv. is employed when stress is laid on the
continuance of the action ; the Pf., when stress is laid on the completion.
Hence the use of the Pf. Subjv. in total prohibitions and passionate
protests.
3. The Imperative of the Past is expressed by the Im-
perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive (unfulfilled duties).
Compare 265, K.
Dotem daretis ; quaereret alium virum, TER., Ph., 297 ; you should
have given her a portion ; she should have sought another match. Cras
Ires potius, hodig Me cenarSs. Valg, PL., Pers., 710; you ought rather to
have put off going till to-morrow, you ought to (have) dine(d) with us
to-day. Good-bye. (Anything decided is regarded as past.) Potius
docSret (causam) non esse aequam, C., Off., in. 22, 88 ; he should rather
have shown that the plea ivas not fair. Ng poposcissgs (libros), C., Att.,
n. i, 3 ; you ought not to have asked for the books.
Observe the difference between the Unfulfilled Duty and the Unreal
of the Past (597).
Morergtur; fgcisset certg si sine maximo dgdecore potuisset, C.,Rab.
Post., 10, 29; he ought to have died ; he would certainly have done so,
could he have (done so) without the greatest disgrace.
NOTE. — The Plupf . tense in this usage is not ante-classical.
273. Passionate questions are equivalent to a command :
Non tacSs ? PL., Am., 700 ; won't you hold your tongue ? Quin tacgs?
Why don't you hold your tongue ? Quln datis, si quid datis? PL., Cas.,
765 ; why don't you give, if you are going to do it 9 (Compare Fac, si
quid facis, MART., i. 46, 1.) Cur non ut plgnus vltae convlva recedis ?
LUCE., in. 938 ; why do you not withdraw as a quest sated with life ?
12
1/8 TENSES OF THE MOODS.
274. Puta, ut puta, for example, begins with [C.] ad Her., n. n, 16 (reading
doubtful) ; then H., S., n. 5, 32, Qulnte, puta, aut Publl. Later it becomes more
common, especially with the Jurists. See C., Ph., n. 6, 15.
275. Summary of Imperative Constructions,
Positive.
3d P. Audi, hear thou ; audits (legal or contingent) ; audies (famil-
iar) ; audias (ideal Second Person chiefly).
3d P. Audito (legal), Jet him hear ; audiat.
Negative.
2d P. Ng audi, hear not (poetic) ; n6 audits (legal) ; n5n audies (famil-
iar) ; ne audias (chiefly ideal) ; noli audire (common) ; ne audiverls (rare).
3d P. Ne audits (legal), let him not hear; ne audiat ; n6 audiverit.
Tenses of the Moods and Verbal Substantives.
276. The Indicative alone expresses with uniform direct-
ness the period of time.
277. i. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive have to
do with continued action, the Perfect and Pluperfect with
completed action. The Perfect Subjunctive is also used to
express the attainment.
2. In simple sentences Present and Perfect Subjunctive
postpone the ascertainment of the Predicate to the Future.
The action itself may be Present or Future for the Present
Subjunctive ; Present, Past, or Future for the Perfect Sub-
junctive.
CrSdat. lie may believe (now or hereafter).
CrSdiderit. Let him have had the belief (heretofore), he may have
come to the belief (now), he may come to the belief (hereafter).
3. In simple sentences the Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub-
junctive are Past Tenses, and regularly serve to indicate un-
reality. (See 597.)
NOTE. — A Subjv. of the Past, being a future of the past, gives a prospective (or
future) action the time of which is over (or past), so that the analysis of the past tenses
of the Subjv. shows the same elements as the Periphrastic Conjugation with eram and
fill. Hence the frequent parallel use. See 254, K. 2, and 597, R. 3.
4. In dependent sentences the Subjunctive is future if the
leading verb has a future signification (515, K. 3) ; otherwise
TENSES OF THE MOODS. 1/9
.the Subjunctive represents the Indicative. The tense is
regulated by the law of sequence. (See 509.)
278. The Imperative is necessarily Future.
279. The Infinitive has two uses :
1. Its use as a Substantive.
2. Its use as a representative of the Indicative.
280. THE INFINITIVE AS A SUBSTANTIVE. — As a Sub-
stantive the Infinitive has two tenses, Present and Perfect.
(See 419.)
1 . The Present Infinitive is the common form of the In-
finitive, used as a Substantive. It has to do with continued
action.
(a) The Present Infinitive is used as a subject or predi-
cate. (See 423, 424.)
Quibusdam totum hoc displicet pb.ilosopb.arl, C., Fin.,i. i, 1 ; to some
this whole business of metaphysics is a nuisance.
(b) The Present Infinitive is used as the object of Verbs of
Creation (Auxiliary Verbs, Verbs that help the Infinitive
into being ; see 423.)
Cats servlre quam pugnare mavult, C., Att., vn. 15, 2 ; Cato prefers to
be a slave rather than to fight (being a slave to fighting).
2. The Perfect Infinitive is comparatively little used as a
Substantive. It has to do with completed action, and is also
used to express attainment.
(a) As a subject, it is used chiefly in fixed expressions or
in marked opposition to the Present.
Plus proderit demonstrasse rectam prStinus viam quam revocare ab
errore iam lapses, QUINT., 11. 6, 2 ; it will be more profitable to have
pointed out the right path immediately than to recall from wandering
those that have already gone astray. [Non] tarn turpe fuit vine! quam
contendisse decorum est, Ov., M., ix. 5 ; 'twas not so much dishonour to
be beaten as 'tis an honour to have struggled.
REMARKS. — i. By a kind of attraction decuit, became, takes occa-
sionally a Pf. Inf. (emotional).
Tune flesse decuit, L., xxx. 44, 7 ; that was the time when it would
have been becoming to weep (to have wept). Et Srubuisse decebat, Ov.5
M,, iv, 330 ; the very flush of shame was becoming.
ISO TENSES OF THE MOODS.
2. So oportuit, behooved, is frequently followed by the Pf. Part, pas-
sive, with or without esse. This seems to have belonged to familiar
style ; it is accordingly very common in early Latin.
[Hoc] iam pridem factum esse oportuit, C., Cat., i. 2, 5 ; this ought to
have been done long ago.
(b] As an object, the Perfect Infinitive is seldom found
in the active, except after velle, to wish, which seems to have
been a legal usage.
Neminem nota strSnui aut ignavl militis notasse volul, L., xxrv. 16, 11 ;
/ wished to have marked (to mark finally, to brand) no soldier with the
mark of bravery or of cowardice. Annalgs, quibus credidisse malls, L.,
XLII. ii, 1. NEIQUIS EORUJI BACANAL HABUISE VELET, S. C. DE BAG.
. Otherwise it is found mainly in the poets (after the fashion of the
Greek Aorist Inf.), and usually with the Pf. and Plupf. tenses, volui,
etc., potul, debueram (debui).
Fratres tendentes opaco P6lion imposuisse Olympo, H., 0., in. 4, 52 ; The
brothers striving to pile Pelion on shady Olympus.
NOTES.— 1. This usage with velle seems to have approached often the Fut. Pf. in
force. A Pf. Inf. after the Pr. of posse occurs very rarely : Non potes probasse
nugas, PL., Aid., 828 ; see V., A., vi. 78, and several cases in OVID and MARTIAL.
2. The Pf. Inf. act. (subj. or obj.) is often found in the poete, especially in elegiac
poetry, as the first word in the second half of a pentameter, where it can hardly be dis-
tinguished from a Present. This usage may be due partly to analogy with verbs of wish-
ing, partly to the exigencies of the metre, partly to the influence of the Greek Aorist. It
must be distinguished from the normal use of the Perfect : Qnam iuvat inmates
ventos audire cubantem Et dominam tenero detinuisse sinu ! TIB., 1. 1, 45.
3. Noteworthy is the occasional uec of debeo with the Pf. Inf. act. in the sense
"must have": statim vicisse dSbeo, C.,Eosc. Am., 23,73; d6b6s adnotasse,
PLIN., Ep., vii. 20, 6.
(c) In the Passive, the Perfect Infinitive is used after
verbs of Will and Desire, to denote impatience of anything
except entire fulfilment. See 537.
[Patriam] exstinctam cupit. C., Fin., iv. 24, 66 ; he desires his country
blotted out.
Here the Infinitive esse is seldom expressed.
Corinthum patres vestrl totius Graeciae lumen exstinctum esse voluerunt,
C., Imp., 5, 11 (211, R. 6).
NOTE. — This usage is common in Comedy and in CICERO, rare, if at all, in CAESAR
and SALLUST ; and later also it is rare, surviving chiefly in phrases. The principal verb
is vo!5, less often cupio, very rarely expeto and nSlo. s^
281. THE INFINITIVE AS THE REPRESENTATIVE OF THE
INDICATIVE. — As the representative of the Indicative, the
TENSES OF THE MOODS. l8l
Infinitive lias all its Tenses : Present, Past, Future, and
Future Periphrastics.
1. The Present Infinitive represents contemporaneous
action — hence the Present Indicative after a Principal Tense,
and the Imperfect after a Historical Tense :
Dlco eum venire, I say that he is coming ; dlcebam eum venire, I said
that he was coming.
2. The Perfect Infinitive represents Prior Action — hence
the Perfect and Imperfect Indicative after a Principal
Tense, and the Pluperfect, Imperfect, and Historical Perfect
Indicative after a Historical Tense :
Dico eum venisse, / say that he came, has come, used to come.
Dixl eum venisse, / said that he had come, used to come, did come.
NOTE.— Meminl, I remember, when used of personal experience, commonly takes
the Present : Turn me rggem appellarl a vobls memini, nunc tyrannum vocari
video, L., xxxiv. 31, 13 ; / remember being styled by you a king then, I see that lam
called a tyrant now.
So also rarely memoria teneo, recorder, I remember, I recall, and fugit mS, I do
not remember. When the experience is not personal, the ordinary construction is fol-
lowed : Memineram Marium ad Infimorum hominum. misericordiam con-
fugisse, C., Sest., 22, 50 ; I remembered that Marius had thrown himself on the mercy
of a set of Imv creatures.
The peculiar construction with the Pr. arises from the liveliness of the recollection.
When the action is to be regarded as a bygone, the Pf. may be used even of personal
experience : Mg memini Iratum dominae turbasse capillos, Ov., A. A., n. 169 ; /
remember in my anger having tousled my sweetheart's hair.
282. The Present Participle active denotes continuance ;
the Perfect passive, completion or attainment.
NOTE.— The Latin is more exact than the English in the use of the tenses. So
the Pf. Part, is frequently employed when we use the Present ; especially in clas-
sical prose, with verbs that, indicate a condition, mental or physical, where the action
of the participle is conceived as continuing up to, and sometimes into, that of the lead-
ing verb, as ratus, thinking ; veritus, fearing ; gavisus, rejoicing, etc. This usage
spreads later : complexus, embracing ; hortatus, exhorting.
283. The Future Participle (active) is a verbal adjective,
denoting capability and tendency, chiefly employed in the
older language with sum, / am, as a periphrastic tense. In
later Latin it is used freely, just as the Present and Perfect
Participles, to express subordinate relations.
NOTES.— 1. The so-called Fut. Part, passive is more properly called the Gerundive,
and has already been discussed (251).
2. The Supine, being without tense relations, does not belong here.
1 82 SIMPLE SENTENCE EXPANDED.
SIMPLE SENTENCE EXPANDED.
284. The sentence may be expanded by the multiplication
or by the qualfiication, A, of the subject, B, of the predicate.
A.
1. Multiplication of the Subject.
Concord.
285. NUMBEK. — The common predicate of two or more
subjects is put in the Plural number :
Lucius Tarquinius et Tullia minor iunguntur nuptiis, L., i. 46, 9 ;
Lucius Tarquinius and Tullia the younger are united in marriage.
Pater et mater mortul [sunt], TER., Eun., 518 ; father and mother are
dead.
EXCEPTIONS. — i. The common predicate may agree with a Sing,
subject when that subject is the nearest or the most important: " My
flesh and my heart faileth," PSA., LXSIII. 26.
Aetas et forma et super omnia Eomanum nSmen te ferociorem facit, L.,
xxxi. 1 8, 3 ; your youth and beauty, and, above all, the name of Roman,
makes you too mettlesome. Latagum sax5 occupat 6s faciemque adversam
V., A., x. 698 (323, N. 2).
The agreement depends largely also upon the position of the verb.
If it precedes or follows the first subj., the Sing, is more apt to stand.
2. Two abstracts in combination, when conceived as a unit, take a
Sing, verb : " When distress and anguish cometh upon you," PROV., i.
27-
BeligiS et fides anteponatur amlcitiae, C., Off., in. 10, 46 ; let the
religious obligation of a promise be preferred to friendship.
So any close union : " Your gold and silver is cankered," JAS., v. 3.
Senatus populusque Eoinanus intellegit, C., Fam., v. 8, 2; the senate
and people of Rome perceives (= Rome perceives). Tua fama et gnatae
vita in dubium veniet, TER., Ad., 340 ; your good name will be jeoparded
and your daughter's life.
3. When the same predicate is found with two or more subjects,
who are conceived as acting independently, classical usage requires
that the predicate be in the Singular. LIVY introduces the PI., which
grows, and becomes the rule in TACITUS : Palatium Eomulus, Eemus
Aventlnum ad inaugnrandum templa capiunt, L., i. 6, 4.
NOTES.— 1. Neque— neque, neither— nor, allows the PI. chiefly when the Persons
are different : Haec neque ego neque tu feciinus, TEK., Ad., 103 ; neither you nor 1
did this.
CONCORD. 183
The same is true, but not so common, of et— et (as well «,«), ant— ailt, either— or.
2. A Sing, stib.j. combined with another word by cum, with, is treated properly as
a Singular. It is treated as a PI. once each by CATO, TEKENCE (Ileaut., 473), CICERO
(by anacoluthon), CAESAR (B. ('., in. 88), more often by SALLUST and his imitators,
LIVT, and later writers. VELLEIUS, VALERIUS M., and TACITUS follow the classical
usage.
Sulla cum Sclpi5ne .... I6g§s inter s6 contulerunt, C., Ph., xn. n,27. Ipse
dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur, L.,xxi. 60, 7; the general himself with
some of the leading men are captured.
3. In the Abl. Aba. the Part, stands usually in the PI. with persons, usually in the
Sing. with, things. C. Graccho et M. Fulvio Placed" interfectis, S., lug., 16, 2.
Caritate benevolentiaque sublata, C., Lad., 27, 102.
286. GENDER. — When the Genders of combined subjects
are the same, the adjective predicate agrees in gender ; when
the genders are different, the adjective predicate takes either
the strongest gender or the nearest.
1. In things with life, the masculine gender is the
strongest ; in things without life, the neuter.
(a) The strongest :
Pater et mater mortul [sunt], TER., Eun., 518 (285). Miirus et porta d8
caelotacta erant, L., xxxn. 29, 1 ; wall and gate had been struck by light-
ning. Hoc anima atque animus vinctl sunt foedere semper, LUCR., in. 416.
(b) The nearest :
Convicta est Messallna et Sllius, Cf. TAG., Ann., xn. 65 ; Messalina
was convicted and (so ivas) Silius. Hippolochus Larissaeorumque deditum
est praesidium, L., xxxvi. 9, 14 ; Hippolochus and the Larissaean gar-
rison (were) surrendered.
2. When things with life and things without life are com-
bined, the gender varies.
(a) Both as persons :
ESx rBgiaque classis profectl (sunt), L., xxi. 50, 11 ; the king and the
king's fleet set out.
(b) Both as things :
Natura inimlca [sunt] Hbera civitas et rSx, Cf. L., XLiv. 24, 2; a free
state and a king are natural enemies.
3. When the subjects are feminine abstracts the predicate
may be a neuter Plural (211, R. 4).
Stultitiam et intemperantiam dlcimus esse fugienda, C., Fin., in. n,
39 ; folly and want of self-control (we say) are (things) to be avoided.
NOTE.— This usage does not appear iu early Latin, nor in CAESAR or SALLUST.
1 84 ADJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE.
287. PERSONS. — When the persons of combined subjects
are different, the First Person is preferred to the Second,
the Second to the Third :
Si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valetis, ego et suavissimus Cicero valSmus,
C., Fam., xiv. 5, 1 ; if Tullia, light of my life, and you are well, dearest
Cicero and I are well.
REMARK. — (a) In contrasts, and when each person is considered
separately, the predicate agrees with the person of the nearest subject.
Et ego et Cicero meus flagitabit, C., Att.,iv. i8,5 ; my Cicero will
demand it and (so will) 1. Beats vivere alii in alio, vSs in voluptate
pSnitis, C., Fin., n. 27, 86 ; some make a blessed life to rest on one thing,
some on another, you on pleasure.
So regularly with disjunctives, see 285, N. 1.
(b) The order is commonly the order of the persons, not of modern
politeness : Ego et uxor mea, Wife and I.
2. Qualification of the Subject.
288. The subject may be qualified by giving it an attribute.
An attribute is that which serves to give a specific character.
The chief forms of the attribute are :
I. The adjective and its equivalents : amicus certus, a sure friend.
REMARK. — The equivalents of the adjective are : i. The pronouns
hie, this, ille, that, etc. 2. Substantives denoting rank, age, trade:
servus homo, a slave person ; homQ senex, an old fellow ; homo gladiator,
a gladiator-fellow; mulier ancilla, a servant-wench. 3. The Genitive
(360, i). 4. The Ablative (400). 5. Preposition and case : excessus 8
vltS, departure from life. 6. Adverbs, chiefly with substantival par-
ticiples : rSctS facta, good actions. 7. Relative clauses (505).
II. The substantive in apposition : CicerO Orator, Cicero
I. ADJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE.
Concord.
289. The Adjective Attribute agrees with its su
in gender, number, and case :
GENDER. NUMBER.
Vir sapiens, a wise man, virl sapientSs, u'ise men.
Mulier pulchra, a beautiful woman, mulierSs pulchrae, beautiful women.
RSgium donum, royal gift, regia dona, royal gifts.
ADJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE. 185
CASE.
Viri sapientis, of a wise. man. bone fill ! good son !
Mulierl pulchrae, for a beautiful woman, regio done", by royal gift.
Virum sapientesi, tvise man. mulieres pulchras, beautiful
women.
290. The common attribute of two or more substantives
agrees Avith the nearest ; rarely with the most important.
Volusenus, vir et consilii magnl et virtutis, CAES., B. G., in. 5, 2 ; Volu-
senus, a man of great wisdom and valour. Cuncta maria terraeque patS-
bant, S., C., 10, 1 ; all seas and lands lay open. Multa alia castella
vlcique aut deleta hostiliter aut Integra in potestatem v5n6re, L., ix. 38, 1.
REMARKS. — i. For emphasis, or to avoid ambiguity, the adj. is re-
peated with every substantive. Sometimes also for rhetorical reasons
simply.
(Semproniae) multae facetiae, multusque lepos inerat, S.,<7., 25, 5 ; Sem-
pronia had a treasure of witticisms, a treasure of charming talk.
2. When a substantive is construed with several similar adjectives
in the Sing. , it may be in agreement with one in the Sing, or may
stand in the PL, according to its position :
Quarta et Martia legiones, C., Fam., xi. 19, 1, but Legio Martia quar-
taque, C., Ph., v. 17, 46, The fourth and Martian legions.
NOTES. — 1. A common surname is put in the Plural : M. (et) Q. Ciceron6s, Marcus
and Quintus Cicero ; C., Cn., M. Carbones, Gains, Gnaeus (and) Marcus Carbo ;
otherwise, M. Cicero et Q- Cicero, Marcus and Quintus Cicero.
2. Poets are free in regard to the position of the adjective: Semper hones nomenque
tuum laudesque manebunt, V., A., i. 609.
291. Position of the Attribute. — T. When the attribute
is emphatic, it is commonly put before the substantive, other-
wise in classical Latin ordinarily after it. But see 676.
1. Fugitivus servus, a runaway slave (one complex).
2. Servus fugitlvus, a slave (that is) a runaway (two notions).
Many expressions, however, have become fixed formula?, such as
civis Komanus, Roman citizen ; populus Komanus, people, of Rome.
Compare body politic, heir apparent in English.
REMARKS. — i. Variation in the position of the adj. often causes
variation in the meaning of the word. Thus rgs bonae, good things ;
bonae r5s, articles of value, or good circumstances ; rgs urbanae, city
matters ; urbanae r6s, witticisms ; mensa secunda, a second table ; secunda
mensa, dessert.
1 86 NUMERALS.
2. Superlatives which denote order and sequence in time and space
are often used partitively, and then generally precede their substan-
tive : summa aqua, the surface of the water ; summus mons, the top of
the mountain ; vere prime, primo vere, in the beginning of spring.
Similarly in media urbe, in the midst of the city ; reliqua, cetera Graecia,
the rest of Greece, and the like.
2. When the attribute belongs to two or more words, it is
placed sometimes after them all, sometimes after the first,
sometimes before them all.
Dlvitiae, nSmen, opes vacuae consilio dedecoris plenae stint, ('., Rep., i.
34, 51 : riches, name, resources (when) void of wisdom are full of dis-
honour.
For examples of the other positions see 290.
Numerals.
292. Duo means simply two, ambo, both (two considered
together), uterque, either (two considered apart, as, " They
crucified two other with him, on either side one," JOHN",
xix. 18) :
Supplicatio amborum nomine et triumphus utrlque decretus est, L.,
xxviu. 9, 9 ; a thanksgiving in the name of both and a triumph to
either (each of the two) was decreed. Qui utr unique probat, ambobus de-
buit uti, C., Fin., n. 7, 20 ; he who approves of either ought to have
availed himself of both.
REMARK. — Uterque is seldom PL, except of sets ; so with pluralia
tantum.
Utrlque (i.e., plebis fautores et senatus) victoriam crudeliter exereebant,
S., C., 38, 4 ; either party (democrats and senate) made a cruel use of
victory. Duae fuSrunt Ariovisti uxores : utraeque in ea fuga perierunt,
CAES., B.G., i. 53, 4 ; Ariovistus's vcives were two in number ; both per-
ished in that flight. Proximo die Caesar e castrls utrisque copias suas
eduxit, CAES.,^.^., i. 50, 1.
On uterque with the PI., see 211, R. i ; with Gen., see 371, R.
293. Mille, a thousand, is in the Sing, an indeclinable adj. and is
less frequently used with the Genitive: mllle mllites, rather than mllle
militum, a thousand soldiers ; in the PI. it is a declinable substantive,
and must have the Genitive : duo milia militum, two thousand(s of)
soldiers = two regiments of soldiers. If a smaller number comes
between, the substantive usually follows the smaller number :
,
NUMERALS. 187
f tria milia qulngentl equit§s,
3500 cavalry, \ tria mflia equitum et **«<»«• but
equites tria milia qulngentl, or
I equitum tria milia quingenti.
But duo milia quingenti hostium in aciS perigre, L., xxn. 7, 3.
NOTE. — The use of mllle as a substantive with the Part. Gen. is found mostly in
ante-classical and post-classical Latin. CICERO and CAESAB use it but rarely, and in
phrases such as mllle minimum, mllle passuum. LIVY is fonder of it.
294. ORDINALS. — The Ordinals are used more often in
Latin than in English ; thus always in dates : anno ducentfi-
simo quarto, in the year 204. • Sometimes they are used for
the cardinals with a carelessness that gives rise to am-
biguity :
Quattuor annl sunt, ex quo te non vldl,
It is four years, that I have not seen you (since I saw you).
Quartus annus est, ex quo te non vidi.
It is the fourth year ( four years, going on four years).
NOTE.— To avoid this ambiguity forms of incipere, to begin, and exigere, to
finish, seem to have been used. Cf., PL., Capt., 980 ; Cist., 161.
On quisque with the ordinal, see 318, 2.
295. DISTRIBUTIVES. — The distributives are used with an
exactness which is foreign to our idiom wherever repetition
is involved, as in the multiplication table.
Bis bina quot [sunt] T C.,N.D., n. 18, 49; how many are twice two 9
Scrlptum eculeum cum quinque pedibus, pullos galllnaceos tris cum terms
pedibus natos esse, L., xxxn. i, 11 ; a letter was written to say that a colt
had been foaled with five feet (and) three chickens hatched with three
feet (apiece).
With singull the distributive is preferred, but the cardinal may be
used.
Antonius (pollicitus est) denarios quingenos singulis militibus daturum,
C., Fam., x. 32, 4 ; Antonius promised to give five hundred denarii to
each soldier. Singulis censoribus denarii trecentl (so all MSS.) imperatl
sunt, C., Verr., n. 55, 137 ; the censors were required to pay three
hundred denarii apiece.
NOTE.— Poets and later prose writers often use the distributive when the cardinal
would be the rule ; thus binl is not unfrequently used of a pair even in CICERO : blnos
(scyphos) habebam, Verr., iv. 14, 32. When there is an idea of grouping, the distribu-
tive is often broken up into a multiplicative and a distributive ; as,
Carmen ab ter novSnis virginibus canl iussSrunt, L., xxxi. is, 9 ; they ordered
a chant to be sung by thrice nine virgins.
188 COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.
On the other hand, prose sometimes shows a cardinal when exact usage would
require a distributive. So regularly mllia.
Milia talentum per duodecim annos (dabitis), L., xxxvn. 45, 15.
On the distributives with pluralia tantum, see 97, B. 3.
Comparatives and Superlatives.
296. COMPARATIVE. — The comparative degree generally
takes a term of comparison either with quam, than, or in the
Ablative :
Ignoratio futurorum inalorinn utilior est quam scientia, ('., Die., n. g,
23; ignorance of future evils is better than knowledge (of them). Nihil
est virtute amabilius, C., Lael., 8, 28 ; nothing is more lovable than
virtue.
REMARKS. — i. (a) The Abl. is used only when the word with quam
would stand in the Nom. or Ace. (644).
Caesar minor est -I (luam omP U8> (. Caesar is younger than Pompey.
I Pompelo,
Caesarem plus amamus \ quam PomP6ium> \ ™ love Caesar more fhan
( Pompei5, ) Pompey.
In the second example the use of the Abl. may give rise to am-
biguity, as the sentence may also mean "we love Caesar more than
Pompey loves him." This ambiguity is always present when adverbs
are used, and hence good prose avoids using a comparative adv. with
an Ablative. See H., S., i. i, 97.
(b) With cases other than Nona, or Ace., quam is regularly used to
avoid ambiguity.
Anulis nostris plus quam animls creditor, SEN., Ben., in. 15, 3 (217).
2. The Abl. is very common in negative sentences, and is used ex-
clusively in negative relative sentences.
Polybium sequamur, quo nemS fuit dlligentior, C., Rep., u. 14, 27 ; let
us follow Polybius, than whom no one was more careful.
3. Measure of difference is put in the Ablative (403).
4. Quam is often omitted after plus, amplius, more, and minus, less,
and the like, without affecting the construction :
Hominl miser 6 plus quingentos colaphos infrSgit mihl, TER., Ad., 199 ;
he has dealt me, luckless creature, more than five hundred crushing
boxes on the ear. Spatium est non amplius pedum sescentorum, CAES.,
B.C., i. 38, 5 ; the space is not more than (of) six hundred feet.
But the normal construction is not excluded :
Palus n5n latior pedibus qulnquaginta, CAES., B. G., vn. 19, 1 ; a swamp
not broader than fifty feet (or pedes quinquaginta). Nostri milites amplius
horis quattuor pugiiaverunt, CAES., B.O., iv. 37, 3.
COMPARATIVES. 189
5. In statements of age we may have a variety of expressions ; thus,
more than thirty years old may be :
1. Natus plus (quam) triginta annos. 3. Maior (quam) trlginta annos natus.
2. Natus plus triginta annls (rare). 4. Maior triginta annls (natus).
5. Maior triginta annorum.
6. On the combination of the comparative with opinione, opinion,
sp5, hope, and the like, see 398, N. 1.
NOTES. — 1. Verbs and other words involving comparison sometimes have the Abl.
where another construction would be more natural. Thus, nialle, to prefer (poet, and
post-classical), aequS, aclaeque, equally (early and late), alius, other (mainly poetic
and rare): Nullos his mallem ludos spectasse, H., 8., n. 8, 79. Qul me" in terra
aeque" fortunatus erit? PL., Cure., 141. Ne putSs alium sapiente bonoque
beatum, Ep., 1. 16, 30.
2. Instead of the Abl., the Gen. is found occasionally in late Latin.
3. Instead of quam or the Abl., prepositional uses with the positive are often found;
as prae, in comparison with, praeter, ante, beyond ; also supra quam. Poetical
is the circumlocution with qualis, as Hon., Epod., 5, 59. Inferior is sometimes con-
structed with the Dat., according to the sense ; inferior to instead of lower than.
4. Atque for quam is mainly poetical ; see 644, N. 2.
297. Standard of Comparison omitted. — When the stand-
ard of comparison is omitted, it is supplied : i . By the con-
text; 2. By the usual or proper standard ; 3. By the opposite.
1. By the context :
Solent rggSs Persarum plur6s uxSrSs habSre, Cf. C., Verr., in. 33, 76;
the kings of Persia usually have more wives [than one].
2. By the proper standard :
Senectiis est natura loquacior, C., Cat.M., 16, 55, Old age is naturally
rather (or too) talkative.
3. By the opposite :
Quigsse erit melius, L., in. 48, 3 ; it will be better to be-perfectly-
quiet (than to make a disturbance).
298. Disproportion. — Disproportion is expressed by the
comparative with quam pro, than for, and the Ablative, or
with quam ut, that, or quam qui, who, and the Subjunctive :
Minor caedSs quam pro tanta vict5ria fuit, L., x, 14, 21 ; the loss was
(too) small for so great a victory. Quis non intellegit Canada signa ri-
gidiora esse quam utimitentur vgritatem ? C., Br., 18, 70 ; who does not
perceive that Canachus1 figures are too stiff to imitate the truth of
nature ? Maior sum quam cui possit Fortuna nocSre, Ov., M., vi. 195; /
am too great for Fortune possibly to hurt me.
COMPARATIVES.
REMARK. — Disproportion may also be expressed by the positive in
combination with prepositional phrases, etc. : pro multitudine angusti
CAES., B.O., i. 2, 5 ; boundaries too small for their multitude.
NOTES.— 1. The constructions quam pro and quam qul are both post-Ciceronian.
2. The ut is frequently omitted after quam, as : Dolabella celerius Asia [ex-
c6ssit], quam eo praesidium adduc! potuisset, C., Fain., XH. 15, 1. This is espe-
cially common after potius quam.
299. Two Qualities compared. — When two qualities of the
same substantive are compared, we find either magis and
quam Avith the positive, or a double comparative :
Celer tuus disertus magis est quam sapiens, C., Alt., x. i, 4 ; your
(friend) Celer is eloquent rather than wise — more eloquent than wise,.
Acutiorem se quam ornatiorem [vult], C., Opt. Gen., 2, 6 ; he wishes to be
acute rather than ornate.
NOTES. — 1. There is no distinction to be made between the two expressions. In the
latter turn, which is found first, but rarely, in CICERO, the second comparative is merely
attracted into the same form as the first. The same rule applies to the adverb :
fortius quam fSHcius, with more bravery than good luck.
2. Post-Augustan Latin shows occasionally the comparative followed by quam, and
the positive : Nimia pietas vestra acrius quam considerate excitSvit, TAC., H.,
1.83.
300. Restriction to the Comparative. — When but two
objects are compared, the comparative exhausts the degrees
of comparison, whereas, in English, the superlative is em-
ployed, unless the idea of duality is emphatic.
Natu maior, the eldest (of two), the elder ; natu minor, the youngest,
the younger. Prior, the first ; posterior, the last.
Posteriores cogitationes, ut aiunt, sapientiorSs solent esse, C.,PA.,xn.
2, 5 ; afterthoughts, as the saying is, are usually the wisest.
REMARK. — The same rule applies to the interrogative uter, which
of two ? (whether T) : Ex duobus uter dignior ' ex pluribus, quis dignis-
simus 1 QUINT., vn. 4, 21 ; of two, which is the worthier ? of more (than
two), which, is the worthiest ?
NOTE.— Qui8 is rarely used instead of uter, as C., Fam., vi. 3, 1 ; V., A., xn. 725.
301. Comparative Strengthened. The comparative is often strength-
ened during the classical period by the insertion of etiam, even ; later
also by adhuc, still. Mult5 is properly the Ablative of difference, and
is the normal form until the time of VERGIL, when its place is taken
largely by longe, except in HORACE, who retains multo. Ante-classical
and post-classical Latin occasionally doubles the comparative : magis
dulcius, PL., Stich., 699. Ninil invenigs magis hoc certO certius, PL.,
PEONOUNS. 191
Capt., 643. Even in CICERO a word involving Inference is sometimes
strengthened by potius :
[Themistocll fuit] optabilius obllviscl posse potius quam meminisse, C.,
Or., ii. 74, 1300 ; Tliemistodes thought it (more) preferable to be able to
forget (rather) than to be able to remember.
302. Superlative. — The Latin superlative is often to be
rendered by the English positive, especially of persons :
Qulntus Fabius Maximus, Quintus Fabius the Great. Maximo impetu,
maiore fortuna, L., xxvin. 36, 2 ; with great vigour, with greater luck.
Tarn fsllx essSs quam formosissima vellem, Ov., Am., i. 8, 27 ; would thou
wert fortunate as (thou art) fair.
303. Superlative. Strengthened. — The superlative is strengthened by
multS, much (especially in early Latin) ; longS, by far (the normal usage
in the classical period); vel, even; turns, unus omnium, one above all
others; quam (with adverbs and adjectives), quantus (with maximus), ut
(with adverbs) — potest, potuit, as — as possible.
Ex Britannls omnibus longe sunt humanissiml qui Cantium incolunt,
CAES., B.O., v. 14, 1; of all the Britons by far the most cultivated are
those that inhabit Kent. PrStagoras sophistes illis temporibus vel maxi-
mus, C., N.D., i. 23, 63; Protagoras, the very greatest sophist (= pro-
fessor of wisdom) in those times. Urbem unam mini amicissimam declinavl,
C., Plane., 41, 97; I turned aside from a city above all others friendly
to me. (Caesar) quam aequissimo loco potest castra communit, CAES. , B. O. ,
v. 49, 7 ; Caesar fortifies a camp in as favourable a position as possible.
REMARKS. — i. The omission of potest leaves quam with the super-
lative, which becomes a regular combination: as (great) as possible.
2. For tarn, tantum, with positive followed by quam, quantum qui, and
the superlative, see 642, R. 5.
PRONOUNS.
I. Personal Pronouns.
304. i. The personal Pronoun is usually omitted when it
is the subject of a verb ; see 207.
2. The Genitive forms, mei, tui, sui, nostrl, vestrl, are used
mainly as Objective Genitives ; see 364, N. 2.
(Marcellinus) se" acerrimum tui dSf5ns5rem fore ostendit, C., Fam., I. i,
2 ; Marcellinus showed that he would be your keenest defender.
NOTES.— 1. Nostrum and vestrum for nostrl, vestrl, are very rare : [luppiter,
custosl huius urbis ac vestrum, Cf. C., Cat.,w. 12, 29.
2. The Possessive pronouns sometimes are found in place of this Genitive : Neque
neclegentia tua neque odio id fecit tuo, TER., Ph., 1016 ; he did this neither from,
1Q2 PRONOUNS.
neglect of thee nor from hatred of thee. Vester conspectus reficit et recreat men-
tern meam, C., Plane., i,2 ; the (tight of you refreshes and renews my spirit*.
" If I be a master, where is my fear ? " MAI», i. 6.
3. The Genitive forms, nostrum and vestrum, are used par-
tit 'ively ; see 364, E.
TS ad mS venire uterque nostrum cupit, C., Alt., xm. 33, 2 ; each of
us two desires that you should come to me.
NOTES. — 1. So regularly also in certain phraseological uses which may be partitive
at basis. Frequentia vestrum, consSnsus vestrum, regularly in combination with
omnium (364, B.), and occasionally when the Possessive is more natural ; is enim
splendor est vestrum, C., Att., vn. ISA, 3.
2. For a Part. Gen. of the third person (reflexive) a circumlocution must be used, such
as ex 86 or the Possessive suorum.
2. Demonstrative Pronouns.
305. Hie, this (the Demonstrative of the First Person),
refers to that ivhich is nearer the speaker, and may mean :
1. The speaker himself : hlc kom<5 = ego, PL., Trin., 1115.
2. The persons with whom the speaker identifies himself, e. g., the
judges in a suit at law : si ego hos n5vl, if I know these men (= the jury).
3. The most important subject immediately in hand : hie sapiens
d5 quo loquor, C., Ac., n. 33, 105 ; this (imaginary) wise man of whom
I am speaking.
4. That in which the speaker is peculiarly interested : hoc studium,
this pursuit of mine, of ours.
5. That which has just been mentioned : haec hactenus, these things
tJms far = so much for that.
6. Very frequently, that which is about to be mentioned : his con-
dicionibus, on the following terms.
7. The current period of time : hlc diSs, to-day ; haec nox, the night
just past or Just coming ; hlc mSnsis, the current month.
306. Iste, that (of thine, of yours), refers to that which
belongs more peculiarly to the Second Person (Demonstrative
of the Second Person) :
Perfer istam militiam, C., Fam., vn. n, 2 ; endure that military
service of yours. Adventu tuo ista subsellia vacuefacta sunt, C., Cat., i.
7, 16 ; at your approach the benches in your neighbourhood were vacated.
NOTE. — The supposed contemptuous character of iste arises from the refusal to
take any direct notice of the person under discussion, " the person at whom one speaks
or points," and precisely the same thing is true of hlc and ille, but less common.
307. Hie, that (the Demonstrative of the Third Person),
denotes that which is more remote from the speaker, and is
often used in contrast to hlc, this.
PRONOUNS. 193
S51 mg ille admonuit, C., Or., m., 55, 209 ; that (yon) sun reminded me.
Q. Catulus non antique 1115 more sed hoc nostrS gruditus, C., Br., 35, 132;
Q. Catulus, a cultivated man, not after the old-fashioned standard of a
by-gone time (illo) but by the standard of to-day (hoc).
Ille may mean :
1. That which has been previously mentioned (often ille quidem):
illud quod initiS vobis proposul, C., Font., 7, 17; that which I propounded
to you at first.
2. That which is well known, notorious (often put after the substan-
tive) : testula ilia, that (notorious) potsherd — institution of ostracism ;
illud Solonis, that (famous saying) of Solon's.
3. That which is to be recalled : illud imprimis mlrabile, that (which
I am going to remind you of) is especially wonderful.
4. That which is expected :
Ilia digs veniet mea qua lugubria pSnam, Ov., Tr., iv. 2, 73 ; the day
will come when I shall lay aside (cease) my mournful strains.
REMARKS. — i. Hie and ille are used together in contrasts : as, the
latter — the former, the former — the latter.
(a) When both are matters of indifference the natural signification is
observed : hie, the latter ; ille, the former.
Ignavia corpus hebetat, labor ftrmat ; ilia maturam senectutem, luc
longam adolescentiam reddit, GELS., i. i ; laziness weakens the body, toil
strengthens it ; the one (the former) hastens old age, the other (the lat-
ter) prolongs youth.
(b) When the former is the more important, hie is the former, ille, the
latter :
Melior tutiorque est certa pax quam spgrata victoria ; haec in nostra,
ilia in de5rum manu est, L., xxx. 30, 19 ; better and safer is certain peace
than hoped-for victory ; the former is in our hand(s), the latter in the
hand(s) of the gods.
2. Hie et ille ; ille et ille ; ille aut ille, this man and (or) that man =
one or tu'o.
Non tiicani hoc slgnum ablatum esse et illud ; hoc dlco, nullum tS
signum rellquisse, C., Verr., i. 20, 53 ; / will not say that this statue was
taken off and that ; (what) / say (is) this, that you left no statue at all.
3. The derived adverbs retain the personal relations of hie, iste, ille :
hie, here (where I am) ; hinc, hence (from where I am) ; hue, hither
(where I am) ; istlc, there (where you are) ; illlc, there (where he is), etc.
4. The Demonstratives hie, iste, ille, and the Determinative is, are
often strengthened by quidem, indeed. The second member is then in-
troduced by sed, sed tamen (more rarely tamen, v5rum, autem, vSro), vgrum-
tamen, and sometimes is added asyndetically. The sentence often re-
quires that either the demonstrative or the particle be left untranslated.
13
194 PRONOUNS.
Optare h5c quidem est, n5n doc6re, C., Tusc., u. 13, 30; THAT is a
(pious) wish, not a (logical) proof. Nihil perfertur ad n6s praeter rum5re"s
satis istos quidem c5nstant§s sed adhuc sine auct5re, C., Fain. xir. 9. 1 ;
nothing is brought to us except reports, consistent enough, it is true, but
thus far not authoritative.
Ille is most often used thus ; is, iste, hie, more rarely.
NOTES.— 1. HlC and ille are sometimes employed to add a qualification to a sub-
stantive by means of a contrast : OrStor non ille vulgaris sed hie exeellgns, C.,
Or., 14, 45 ; an orator, not of the (yon) common type, but of the ideal excellence (we seek).
2. Not unfrequently in poetry, very rarely in prose, in a long sentence a substan-
tive is repeated bymeans of ille : V., A., i. 3, ille et terris iactatus ; H., 0., iv. 9, 51.
3. Sometimes two forms of hie, ille, or is are found in the same clause referring to
different substantives : Evolve dlligenter 5ius [«'• f-, Platonis] eum librum, qui
est d§ animS, C., Tusc., i. n, 24.
4. Hie may refer to an oblique form of is : Non est amlcl talem esse in eum.
qualis ille in s6 est, C., Lad., 16, 59.
5. Ille is found chiefly in poetry with the personal pronouns ego, tH, and occasion-
ally with hie, and when so used takes its fullest force. Hunc ilium fatls externa
ab s6de profectum portendl generum, V., A., VH. 255.
3. Determinative and Reflexive Pronouns.
308. Is, that, is the determinative pronoun, and serves as
the lacking pronoun of the Third Person. It furnishes the
regular antecedent of the relative :
Mini venit obviam tuus puer ; is mini lltteras abs te reddidit, C., Ail.,
ii. i, 1 ; I was met by your servant ; he delivered to me a letter from you.
Is minimS eget mortalis qui minimum cupit, SYRUS, 286 (Fr.); that mortal
is in want of least, who wanteth least.
EEJIARKS. — i. Is, as the antecedent of the relative, is often omitted,
chiefly in the Norn., more rarely in an oblique case (619).
Bis dat qui dat celeriter, SYRUS, 235 (Fr.); he gives twice who gives in
a trice.
Often it has the force of talis (631, i) in this connection:
Ego is sum qui nihil umquam mea potius quam meorum civium causa
fecerim, C., Fam., v. 21, 2; / am a man never to have done anything
for my own sake, rather tfian for the sake of my fellow-citizens.
z. Is, with a copulative or adversative particle, is used as he or that
in English, for the purpose of emphasis. Such expressions are : et is,
atque is, isque, and lie too, and that too ; neque is, et is non, and he not,
and that not ; sed is, but lie, further strengthened by quidem, indeed.
To refer to the whole action id is employed.
Exempla quaerimus et ea n5n antiqua, C., Verr., in. 90, 210 ; we are
looking for examples, and those, too, not of ancient date. Epicurus una
in domo et ea quidem angusta quam magnos tenuit amicorum gregSs, C..
Fin., i. 20. 65 ; ivhat shoals of friends Epicurus had in one house, and
PRONOUN'S. 195
that a pinched-up one ! NegStium magnum est navigSre atque id mgnse
Qulnctlli, C., Att. v. 12, 1; it is a big job to take a voyage and that in
the month of July.
3. Is does not represent a substantive before a Gen., .as in the Eng-
lish that of. In Latin the substantive is omitted, or repeated, or a
word of like meaning substituted.
Non iudicio diseipulorum dicere debet magister sed dlscipull magistrl,
QUINT., ii. 2, 13; the master is not to speak according to the judgment of
the pupils ; but the pupils according to that of the master. Nulla est
celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate contendere, C., Tusc., i. 19, 43 ;
there is no speed that can possibly vie with that of the mind. M. Coelius
tribunal suum iuxta C. Treboni sellam collocavit, CAES., B.C., in. 20, 1;
Marcus Coelius placed his chair of office next to that of Gains Trebonius.
Of course hie, ille, and iste can be used with the Gen. in their proper
sense.
309. REFLEXIVE. Instead of forms of is, the Reflexive
Pronoun, sui, sibl, se, together with the Possessive of the
Reflexive suos (-us), sua, suom (-um) is used. (See 521.)
1. Regularly when reference is made to the grammatical
subject of the sentence :
Ipse sg quisque dlligit quod sib! quisque carus est, G.,*Lael., 21, 80;
every one lores himself, because every one is dear to himself. (Fadius) a
mS dlligitur propter summam suam humanitatem, C., Jfram., xv. 14, 1 ;
Fadius is a favourite of mine by reason of his exceeding kindliness.
The subject may be indefinite or (occasionally) impersonal.
Contentum suls rgbus esse maximae sunt divitiae, C., Par., vi. 3, 51;
to be content with one's own things (with what one hath) is the greatest
riches. Perventum ad suos erat, L., xxxni. 8, 6.
" Pure religion and undeflled is this ... to keep himself unspotted from the
world." JAMBS, i.27.
2. Frequently when reference is made to the actual sub-
ject (521, R. 2) :
Suos rgx rgglnae placet, PL., St., 133 ; every queen favours her own
king (every Grill loves her own Jack). Osculatur tigrim suus custos, SEN.,
E.M., 85, 41 ; her own keeper kisses the tigress (the tigress is kissed by
her own keeper). Cui proposita sit conservatio sui necesse est huic partgs
quoque sui caras esse, C., Fin., v. 13, 37; he who has in view the preser-
vation of himself (self-preservation) must necessarily hold dear the
parts of (that) self also.
This is especially common with suos, which when thus employed
has usually its emphatic sense : own, peculiar, proper,
196 PRONOUNS.
3. Sui, sibl, se are the regular complements of the infinitive
and its equivalents when a reflexive idea is involved ; they
are also used with prepositions erga, inter, propter, per, for
especial emphasis.
(Roman! » sul colligendl hostibus facultatem (non) relinquunt, CAES.,
B.O., in. 6, 1 ; the Romans do not leave the enemy a chance to rally.
Ipsum Furnium per sS vidl libentissime", C., Fam., x. 3, 1.
4. Suos (-us) is also used in prepositional phrases that are
joined closely with the substantives ; so after cum, inter, and
more rarely after in, intra, and ad.
Magonem cum classe sua in Hispaniam mittunt, L., xxm. 32, 11 ; they
sent Mago with his fleet to Spain. Helvetios in fines suos revertl iussit,
CAES., B.G., I. 28, 3 ; he ordered the Helvetians to return to their own
country.
So the phrases su5 tempore, at the right time ; su6 Iocs, at the right
place.
Comoediae quern usura in puerls putem sud loco dicam, QUINT., i. 8, 7 ;
what I consider to be the good of comedy in the case of boys I will men-
tion in the proper place.
NOTES.— 1. The writer may retain forms of is, if he desires to emphasise his own
point of view. So too in prepositional combinations.
(Caesar) Ciceronem pro 6ius merits laudat, CAES., B. G., v. 52, 4 ; Caesar praises
Cicero according to his desert. [Pompeius] cum decrStum d6 me" Capuae fecit,
ipse cunctae Italiae eius fidem imploranti slgnum dedit, C., Ml., 15, 39.
2. In early comedy and then again in late Latin, suos is sometimes strengthened by
sibl: Suo sibl gladio hunc iugulo, TBB., Ad., 958 ; very rarely in classical Latin
(C., Ph., ii. 37, 96). Similarly mea mM, PL., True., 698.
3. On suum quisque, see 318, 3.
4. In dependent clauses the reflexive is used with reference either to the principal or
to the subordinate subject. See for fuller treatment 521.
310. Idem, the same, serves to unite two or more attributes
or predicates on a person or thing ; it is often to be trans-
lated by at the same time ; likewise, also ; yet, notwith-
standing.
(Cimon) incidit in eandem invidiam quam pater suus, XEP., v. 3, 1;
Cimon fell into the same odium as his father. Quidquid honestum [est]
idem [est] utile, C., Off., n. 3, 10 ; whatever is honourable is also (at the
same time) useful. Nil prSdest quod non laedere possit idem, Ov., Tr., n.
266 ; nothing helps that may not likewise hurt. (Epicurus), cum optimam
et praestantissimam natur am del dlcat esse, negat Idem esse in deo gratiam,
G., N.D., 1.43, 121; although Epicurus says that the nature of God is
PRONOUNS. 197
transcendently good and great, yet (at the same time) he says that there
is no sense of favour in God. Difficilis facilis, iucundus acerbus, es idem,
MART. , xn. 47, 1 ; crabbed (and) kindly, sweet (and) sour, are you at once.
REMARKS. — i. When a second attribute is to be added to a substan-
tive it is often connected by idemque, et Idem, atque idem: Vir doctissimus
Plats atque idem gravissimus philosopher uni omnium, C., Leg., IT. 6, 14 ;
Plato, a most learned man, and at the same time weightiest of all the
philosophers.
2. The same as is expressed by Idem with qul, with atque or ac, with
ut, with cum, and poetically with the Dative. See 359, N. 6, 642, 643.
Tibi mecum in eodem est plstrlno vlvendum, C., Or.,u. 33, 144 ; you
have to live in the same treadmill with me.
3. Idem cannot be used with is, of which it is only a stronger form
(is + dem).
311. i. Ipse, self, is the distinctive pronoun, and separates
a subject or an object from all others :
Ipse fSci, / myself did it and none other, I alone did it, I did it of
my own accord, I am the very man that did it. Nunc ipsum, at this
very instant, at this precise moment.
Valvae subito s5 ipsae aperuSrunt, C., Div.,i. 34, 74 ; the folding-
doors suddenly opened of their own accord. (Cato) mortuus est annis
octoginta sex ipsls ante [CicerSnem] consulem, C., Br., 15, 61 ; Cato died
just eighty-six years before Cicero's consulship. Huic rei quod satis esse
visum est militum reliquit (Caesar) ; ipse cum legionibus in fines Trgve-
rSrum proficiscitur, CAES., B.G., v. 2, 4.
REMARKS. — i. Owing to this distinctive character, ipse is often used
of persons in opposition to things ; riders in opposition to horses ; in-
habitants in opposition to the towns which they inhabit ; the master of
the house in opposition to his household, etc.
E5 quo m5 ipsa misit, PL., Cas.,"]qo; I am going where mistress
sent me. Ipse dixit, C., N.D., i. 5, 10 ; the master said (avros !<£a).
2. Et ipse, likewise, as well, is used when a new subject takes an old
predicate :
[Locrl urbs] dSsdverat et ipsa ad Foenos, L., xxix. 6, 1 ; Locri-city had
likewise (as well as the other cities) revolted to the Carthaginians.
[Camillus] ex Volscis in Aequos transiit et ipsos bellum molientSs, L., vi.
2,14; Camillus went across from the Volscians to the Aequians, who
were likeivise (as well as the Volscians) getting up war.
CICERO prefers in this meaning ipse alone, but et ipse occurs occasionally (not in
CAESAR or SALLUST), and becomes the prevailing form in LIVT and later.
2. Ipse is used to lay stress on the reflexive relation ; in
198 PRONOUNS.
the Nominative when the subject is emphatic, in the Oblique
Cases when the object is emphatic.
S6 ipse laudat, lie (and not another) praises "himself. Sg ipsum laudat,
he praises himself (and not another).
Piger ipse sibi obstat, PROV. (SEN., E.M., 94, 28) ; the lazy man
stands in his own way, is his own obstacle. Non egeo mediclna ; m6
ipse consSlor, C., Lael., 3, 10 ; / do not need medicine; I comfort my-
self (I am ray only comforter). Eodem modo sapigns erit affectus erga
amicum qu5 in s6 ipsum, C., Fin., i. 20, 68 ; the wise man will feel to-
wards his friend as he feels towards himself.
Exceptions are common :
Quique aliis cavit, non cavet ipse sibi, Ov., A. A., i. 84 ; and he who
cared for others, cares not for himself.
NOTE. — LIVY seems to use sometimes ipse in connection with a reflexive as if it were
indeclinable or absolute : cum dies vgnit, causa ipse pr5 s6 dicta, damnatur, L.,
iv. 44, 10 ; when the appointed day came he pleaded his men. cause and was condemned.
4. Possessive Pronouns.
312. The Possessive Pronouns are more rarely used in Latin
than in English, and chiefly for the purpose of contrast or
clearness.
Manus lava et cSna, C., Or., n. 60, 246 ; wash (your) hands and dine.
Fraedia mea tu possides, ego aliens misericordia vivo, C., Rose. Am., 50,
145 ; you are in possession of my estates, (while) I live on the charity
of others.
REMARKS. — i. Observe the intense use of the Possessive in the sense
of property, peculiarity, fitness : suum esse, to belong to one's self, to
be one's own man.
Tempore tuo pugnastl, L., xxxvm. 45, 10 ; you have fought at your
own time (= when you wished). Hoc honore mg adfgcistis anno me6,
C., Leg. Agr., n. z, 4 ; you visited me with this honour in my own, year
(= the first year in which I could be made consul). Pugna suum finem,
cum iacet hostis, habet, Ov., Tr., in. 5, 34; a fight has reached its fit end
when the foe is down.
2. On the use of the Possessive Pronouns for the Gen., see 364.
5. Indefinite Pronouns.
313. Quidam means one, a, a certain one, definite or indefi-
nite to the speaker, but not definitely designated to the hearer.
In the Plural, it is equivalent to some, sundry, without em-
phasis.
PRONOUNS. 199
Interea mulier quaedam commigravit hue, TER., And., 6g • meanwhile
a certain woman took up her quarters here. Intellegendum est quibusdam
quaestionibus alios, quibusdam alios esse aptiorgs locos, C., Top., 21, 79 ;
it is to be observed that some grounds are more suitable for some questions,
for some, others. Tarn nescire quaedam milites quam sclre oportet, TAC.,
//., i. 83.
REMARKS. — i. With an adjective quldam often serves to heighten the
attribute by adding a vagueness to it. (Gr. TIS).
Est quodam incrSdibill robore animl, C., Mil., 37, 101 ; really he is en-
dowed ivith a strange strength of mind (one that is past belief).
2. Quldam is often used with or without quasi, as if, to modify an
expression :
N5n sunt ist! audiend! qu! virtutem duram et quasi ferream esse quandam
volunt, C., Lael., 13, 48 ; those friends of yours are not to be listened to
ivho will have it (maintain) that virtue, is hard, and, as it were, made of
iron. Est quaedam virtutum vitiSrumque viclnia, QUINT., n. 12, 4 (cf.
in. 7, 25) ; there is a certain neighborly relation between virtues and
vices.
3. Quldam may be strengthened by the addition of certus or unus:
Vita agenda est certo genere quodam, n5n quolibet, C., Fin., in. 7, 24.
Est eloquentia una quaedam d6 summls virtutibus, C., Or., in. 14, 55.
314. Aliquis (aliqul) means, some one, some one or other,
wholly indefinite to the speaker as well as to the hearer :
[Declamabam] cum aliquo cottidie", C., Br., go, 310 ; I used to declaim
with somebody or other daily.
In the predicate it is often emphatic (by Litotes, 700) : sum aliquis,
aliquid, / am somebody = a person of importance, something = of
some weight ; opposed to : nullus sum, nib.il sum, lam a nobody, nothing.
This force is often heightened by a following contrast :
Est h5c aliquid, tametsl non est satis, C., Div. in Caec., 15, 47 ; this
is something, although it is not enough. Fac, ut mS velis esse aliquem,
quoniam, qui fui et qui esse potul, iam esse n5n possum, C., Alt., in. 15, 8 ;
do make out that I am somebody, since I can no longer be the man I was
and the man I might have been.
REMARKS. — i. Aliquis and aliqul are distinguished as substantive and
adjective : accordingly, when aliquis is used with a substantive the rela-
tion is appositional. This always occurs with Proper names; and even
with other substantives the Romans seem to have preferred aliquis to
aliqul. (See 107. N. i.)
2. With numerals, aliquis is used like English some. Occasionally
also it has the force of many a. So in CAES., B. C., i. 2, 2, dixerat aliquis
leniorem sententiam, where aliquis refers to three persons, named later.
2OO PRONOUNS.
315. ftuis (qul), fainter than aliquis, is used chiefly after
si, if; nisi, unless ; ne, lest ; num, whether, and in relative
sentences. See 107, R.
Ng quid nimis ! TER., And., 6r ; nothing in excess! Fit plerumque
nt ii qul bonl quid volunt adferre, adfingant aliquid, quo faciant id, quod
nuntiant, laetius, C., Ph., 1.3,8; it often happens that those who wish to
bring (some) good tidings, invent something more, to make the news more
cheering.
NOTE?.— 1. Aliquis is used after si, etc., when there is stress : si quis, if any ; si
aliquis, if some ; si quid, if anything ; si quidquam, if anything at all.
SI aliquid dandum est voluptati, senectus modicls convlviis delectari po-
test, C., Cato. M., 14, 44 ; if something is to be given to pleasure (as something or other
must), old age can take delight in mild festivities.
Aliquis is regular if the sentence contains two negatives : [Verr6s] nih.il umquam
fgcit sine aliquo quaestu, C., Verr., v. 5, 11. (446.)
2. Quis and qul are distinguished as aliquis and aliqul, but the distinction is often
neglected, even in classical Latin. See 107, N. 1.
316. Quispiam is rarer than aliquis, but not to be distin-
guished from it, except that quispiam never intimates impor-
tance. Dixerit quispiam, C., Cat.M., 3, 8 ; some one may say.
317. i. ftuisquam and ullus (adjective) mean any one (at
all), and are used chiefly in negative sentences, in sentences
that imply total negation, and in sweeping conditions :
[lustitia] numquam nocet culquam, C., Fin., i. 16, 50 ; justice never
hurts anybody. Quis umquam Graecorum rhetorum a Thucydide quidquam
duxit 1 C., Or., 9, 317; what Greek rhetorician ever drew anything from
Thucydides ? [None]. SI quisquam, ille sapiens fuit, C., Lad., 2,9; if
any one at all (was) wise, he was. Quamdiu quisquam erit qul tS d6fen-
dere audeat, vIvSs, C., Cat.,i. 2, 6 ; so long as there shall be any one to
dare defend you, live on. Hostem esse in Syria negant ullum, C., Fam.,
in. 8, 10 ; they say that there is not any enemy in Syria. OmninS n6m8
ulllus rel fuit gmptor cul dSfuerit hie vgnditor, C.,Ph.,n. 38, 97 ; gen-
erally there was never a buyer of anything who lacked a seller in him
(no one ever wanted to buy anything that he was not ready to self).
So after comparatives :
S51is candor inlustrior est quam Qlllus Ignis, C., N.D., n. 15, 40 ; the
brilliancy of the sun is more radiant than that of any fire.
NOTES.— 1. Quisquam is occasionally (principally in LIVT) strengthened by Onus,
especially after a negative : Cum multl magis fremerent, quam quisquam unus
recusare audSret, L., in. 45, 4.
2. After sine, without, omnl is often used instead of ullS (ulla) in early Latin :
Sine omni cura dormias, PL., Trin., 621.
3. On the use of quisquam as an adj., see 107, 3, N. 2.
PRONOUNS. 2O I
2. The negative of quisquam is nem6, nobody ; nihil, noth-
ing (108). The negative of ullus is nullus, no, none, which
is also used regularly as a substantive in the Genitive and
Ablative instead of neminis and nemine.
NemQ is also sometimes used apparently as an adjective,
though the conception is usually appositional.
NSm§ vir magnus, C., N.D., II. 66, 167 ; no great man, no one (who is)
a great man.
NOTES.— 1. On neque quisquam and et nem5, see 480.
2. Nullus is used in familiar language instead of n6n (so sometimes in English) :
Philippus nullus usquam, L., xxxn. 35,2 ; no Philip anywhere. Quis is also used
familiarly : Prospectum petit, Anthea si quern videat, V., A., 1. 181 ; an Anthem,
i. e., Antheus or somebody who would answer for him.
3. Nemo and nullus are occasionally strengthened by unus.
318. i. Quisque means each one, as opposed to omnis, every,
and is usually post-positive.
M6ns cuiusque, is est quisque, C. , Rep. , vi. 24, 26 ; each man's mind
is each man's self. Laudatl omnSs sunt donatique pr5 merits quisque,
L., xxxvin. 23 ; all were praised and rewarded, each one according to
his desert. Quam quisque n5rit artem in hac sS exerceat, [C.], Tusc.,i.
18, 41. (616.)
2. With superlatives and ordinals quisque is loosely trans-
lated every :
Optimum quidque rarissimum est, C., Fin., n. 25, 81 ; every good
thing is rare ; more accurately, the better a thing, the rarer it is. (645,
R. 2.) Quints quSque anno Sicilia t6ta cSnsStur, C., Verr., n. 56, 139 ;
every fifth year all Sicily is assessed.
3. Quisque combines readily with the reflexives, sul, sibl,
se, suus, in their emphatic sense (309, 2). Here, except for
special reasons, the reflexive precedes. Suum culque has be-
come a standing phrase.
Sua quemque fraus et suus terror vexat, C., Rose. Am., 24,6? ; it is
his own sin and his own alarm that harasses a man.
NOTES.— 1. After CICERO'S time, owing to the phraseological character of the com-
bination, sul etc. quisque, we find it used without agreement.
Exercitus amisso duce ac passim multls sib! quisque imperium petentibus
brevl dilabitur, S.,Iuy., i8,3. Instigando suos quisque populos eff5c6re ut
omne Volscum nSmen deficeret, L.,n. 38, 6.
2. Classical but not common is the attraction of quisque into the case of the
reflexive. Haec procllvitas ad suum quodque genus a similitudine corporis
aegrotatio dlcatur, C., Tusc., iv. 12, 28.
2O2 PROXOUXS.
3. Quisque combined with primus has two meanings : (a) as early as possible, (&)
one after the other in order (deinceps).
Primo quoque tempore, C., Ph., m. 15, 39 ; at the earliest time jxwsible. Prlmum
quidque (each thing in order) considers quale sit, C., JT.Z>., i. 27, 77.
4. The various uses of quisque are well summed up iiLNiGELSBACH's formulae :
a. Non omnia omnibus tribuenda sunt, sed suum cuique ;
b. Omnes idem faciunt, sed optimus quisque optiuie ;
c. Non omnibus annis hoc fit, sed tertio quoque anno ;
d. Non omnes idem faciunt, sed quod quisque volt.
319. Alter and alius are both translated other, another, but
alter refers to one of two, alius to diversity. They are used
in various phraseological ways, which can be best shown by
examples :
Solus aut cum alters, alone or with (only) one other; alter Nero, a
second Nero.
Alter alterum quaerit, one (definite person) seeks the other (definite
person) ; alius alium quaerit, one seeks one, another another ; alterl —
alter!, one party — another party (already defined) ; alii — alii, some —
others. Alter often means neighbor, brother, fellow-man ; alius, third
person.
Alter:
(Age"silaiis) fuit claudus alters pede, NEP., svn. 8, 1 : Agesilaiis ivas
lame of one foot. Altera manu fert lapidem, panem ostentat altera, PL. ,
Aul., 195; in one hand a stone he carries, in the other holds out bread.
Mors nee ad vivQs pertinet nee ad mortuos : alterl null! (317, 2, N. 2) snnt,
alteros non attinget, C., Tusc., i. 38, 91 ; death concerns neither the liv-
ing nor the dead : the latter are not, the former it will not reach.
Alius:
Fallacia alia aliam trudit, TER., And., 779 ; one lie treads on the heels
of another (indefinite series). Alii voluptatis causa omnia sapientes
facere dixerunt ; alii cum voluptate dignitatem coniungendam putaverunt,
C., Gael., 15, 41 ; some have said that wise men do everything for the
sake of pleasure, others have thought that pleasure is to be combined
with dignify. DIvitias alii praeponunt, alii honores, C., Lael., 6, 20; some
prefer riches, others honors. Alii vestrum ansergs sunt, alii canes, C.,
Rose. Am., 20, 57 ; some of you are geese, others dogs. Aliud alii natura
iter ostendit, S., C., z, 9 ; nature shows one path to one man, another
path to another man.
Alter and alius :
Ab alio expectSs alteri quod fScerls, SYRUS, 2 (Fr.) ; you may look for
from another what you've done unto your brother (from No. 3, what
No. i has done to No. 2).
APPOSITION. 203
NOTES.— 1. Alius is found occasionally, especially in late Latin, for alter : alius
Ner6, SUET., Tit. ^ ; but in CAES., B. G., 1. 1, 1, alius follows unus. Alii for re-
liqul or cSteri is occasional, in the earlier times, but more common in LIVT and later.
2. The Greek usage of alius in the meaning besides, is poet-Ciceronian and rare.
E5 missa plaustra iumentaque alia, L., iv. 41,8.
APPOSITION.
320. By apposition one substantive is placed by the side of
another, which contains it :
picero Orator, Cicero the orator. Bhenus flumen, the river Shine.
CONCORD.
321. The word in apposition agrees with the principal word
(or words) in case, and as far as it can in gender and number :
Norn. Herodotus pater historiae, Herodotus the father of history ;
Gen. Herodoti patris historiae ; Dat. HSrodoto patri historiae.
Cnidus et Colophon, nobilissimae urbes, captae sunt, Cf. C., Imp., 12, 33;
Cnidus and Colophon, most noble cities, were taken. Omnium doctrlna-
rum inventrices Athenae, Cf. C., Or., i. 4, 13; Athens, the inventor of all
branches of learning.
REMARKS. — i. Exceptions in number are due to special uses, as, for
example, when cleliciae or amorSs, etc., are used of a Singular :
Pompeius, nostri amores, ipse sS affllxit, C., Att., n. 19, 2 ; Pompey, our
special passion, has wrecked himself,
2. The Possessive Pronoun takes the Gen. in apposition :
Tuum, hominis simplicis, pectus vidimus, C., Ph., n. 43, 111 : we have
seen your bosom bared, you open-hearted creature ! Urbs mea unius opera
fuit salva, Cf. C., Pis., 3, 6 ; the city was saved by my exertions alone.
3. On the agreement of the predicate with the word in apposition,
see 211, R. 6.
NOTES.— 1. In poetry, instead of the Voc. in apposition, the Nom. is often found.
Semper celebr abere donis, Corniger Hesperidum, fluvius regnator aquarum,
V., A., vin. 77. In prose not before PLINY.
2. Very rarely persons are looked upon as things, and the Appositives used hi the
neuter : Dum patrgs et plSbem, invalida et inermia, ludificStur, TAC., Ann., i. 46.
322. Partitive Apposition. — Partitive Apposition is that
form of Apposition in which a part is taken out of the whole.
It is sometimes called Eestrictive Apposition.
Maxuma pars fere" morem hunc homines habent, PL., Capt., 232 ; man-
kind—pretty much the greatest part of them — have this way. Cetera
multitude sorte decumus quisque ad supplicium lecti (sunt), L., n. 59, 11 ;
(of) the rest of the crowd every tenth man was chosen by lot for punish-
ment.
2O4 APPOSITION.
323. Distributive Apposition. — Distributive Apposition is
that form of Apposition in which the whole is subdivided
into its parts, chiefly with alter — alter, the one — the other ;
quisque, uterque, each one; alii — alii, pars — pars, some —
others. (It is often called Partitive Apposition.)
Duae flliae altera occisa altera capta est, CAES., B.&., i. 53, 4 ; (of)
two daughters, the one was killed, the other captured.
REMARK. — The Part. Gen. is more commonly employed than either
of these forms of apposition. »
NOTES.— 1. Partitive Apposition is not found in CICERO or CAESAR, and Distributive
Apposition rarely. They are more frequent in SALLUST, and not uncommon in LIVT.
2. The Greek figure of the whole and the part (<rx*lPa xaff o\ov «<u /*<?po?) is rare and
poetical in Latin. Latagnm sax5 occupat os facienique adversam, V., A., x. 698 ;
smites Latagus with a bowlder, full (in) mouth and face (Cf. Eng. " hand and foot ").
324. Apposition to a Sentence. — Sometimes an Accusative
stands in apposition to a whole preceding sentence : either
explaining the contents of the sentence or giving the end or
the aim of the action involved in the sentence. The latter
usage, however, is not found, in CICERO or CAESAR.
Admoneor ut aliquid etiam de sepultura clicenduin existimem, rem non
difficilem, C., Tusc., i. 43, 102 ; / am reminded to take into considera-
tion that something is to be said about burial also — an easy matter.
Deserunt tribunal, ut quis praetorianorum mllitum occurreret mantis inten-
tantes, causam discordiae et initium armorum, TAG., Ann., I. 27.
If the main verb is passive the Appositive may be in the Nominative :
TAC., Ann., m. 27.
NOTES.— 1. Neuter adjectives and participles are occasionally used in the same way,
and some regard such neuters as Nominatives.
2. This Ace. is to be regarded as the object effected (330) by the general action of the
sentence.
Predicative Attribution and Predicative Apposition.
325. Any case may be attended by the same case in Pred-
icative Attribution or Apposition, which differ from the
ordinary Attribution or Apposition in translation only.
NOMINATIVE : Fllius aegrotus rediit.
Ordinary Attribution : The sick son returned.
Predicative Attribution : The son returned sick = he was sick
when he returned.
Hercules iuvenis leonem interfecit.
Ordinary Apposition : The young man Hercules slew a lion.
APPOSITION. 2O5
Predicative Apposition : Hercules, when a young man, sleiv a
lion = he was a young man when he slew a lion.
GENITIVE : Potestas eius adhibendae uxoris, the permission to take her
to wife.
DATIVE : Amico vivo non subvSnistl, you did not help your friend
(while he was) alive.
ACCUSATIVE : Hercules cervam vivam cepit.
Ordinary Attribution : Hercules caught a living doe.
Predicative Attribution : Hercules caught a doe alive.
ABLATIVE : Acre utuntur importatS, they use imported copper = the
copper which they use is imported.
REMARKS. — i. The Voc., not being a case proper, is not used predi-
Ciitively. Exceptions are apparent or poetical.
Quo, moriture, ruis ? V., A., x. 810 ; " whither dost thou rush to die "
(thou doomed to die) ? Sic venias, hodierne, TIB., i. 7, 53.
Notice here the old phrase : Macte virtute esto, EL, S., i. 2, 31 ; in-
crease in virtue = heaven speed thee in thy high career.
Macte is regarded by some as an old Voc., from the same stem ae magnus ; by
others as an adverb. A third view is that macte with esto is an adverb, and only
when used absolutely a Vocative.
2. VictorSs redierunt may mean, the conquerors returned, or, they re-
turned conquerors ; and a similar predicative use is to be noticed in
idem, the same: Ildem abeunt qui vSnerant, C., Fin., iv. 3, 7 ; they go
away just as they had come (literally, the same persons as they had come).
3. Predicative Attribution and Apposition are often to be turned
into an abstract substantive :
Defendi rem publicam adul6sc6ns, non deseram senex, C., Ph., II. 46, 118;
I defended the state in my youth, I will not desert her in my old age.
So with prepositions :
Ante Ciceronem consulem, before the consulship of Cicero ; ante urbem
conditam, before the building of the city.
4. Do not confound the "as" of apposition with the "as" of com-
parison— ut, quasi, tamquam, sicut, velut (602, N. 1, 642) : Hanc (virtutem)
vobis tamquam hgrgditatem maiores vestri reliquerunt, C., Ph., iv. 5, 13 ;
your ancestors left you this virtue as (if it were) a legacy.
5. When especial stress is laid on the adjective or substantive pred-
icate, in combination with the verbal predicate, the English language
is prone to resolve the sentence into its elements :
Fragilem true! commlsit pelago ratem primus, H., 0., I. 3, 10; his frail
bark to the wild waves he trusted first = to trust his frail bark to the
wild waves he was first. Una salus victis nullam sperare salutem, V., A.,
i1- 353 5 s°le safety for the vanquished 'tis, to hope for none — the only
safety that the vanquished have is to hope for none.
2O6 PREDICATE.
6. The English idiom often uses the adverb and adverbial expressions
instead of the Latin adjective : so in adjectives of inclination and dis-
inclination, knowledge and ignorance, of order and position, of time and
season, and of temporary condition generally : libgns, with pleasure;
volgns, willing(ly) ; nolens, unwillingly) ; invltus, against one's will ;
prudens, aware ; imprudSns, unawares ; sciens, knoicing(ly) ; primus, prior,
first ; ultimas, last ; uiedius, in, about the middle ; hodiernus, to-day ;
matutlnus, in the morning ; frequens, frequently) ; subllmis, aloft ; totus,
wholly ; s51us, unus, alone, and many others.
Ego eum a mg invltissimus dlmlsl, C., Fam., xm. 63, 1 ; 1 dismissed
him most unwillingly. Plus hodiS boni feci imprudgns quam sciens ante
hunc diem umquam, TER., Sec., 880 ; I have done more good to-day
unawares than I have ever done knowingly before. Adcurrit, mediam
mulierem complectitur, TER., And., 133 ; he runs up, puts his arms about
the woman's waist. Qni prior strinxerit ferrum eius victoria erit, L., xxiv.
38, 5 (244, R. 2). Vespertlnus pete tectum, H., Ep., i. 6. 20 ; seek thy dwell-
ing at eventide. Rarus venit in cenacula miles, Juv., x. 18 ; the soldiery
rarely comes into the garret. SS totos tradidfirunt voluptatibus, C.,
Lad. , 23, 86 ; they have given themselves wholly to pleasure. Soli h<5c
contingit sapienti, C., Par., v. i, 34 ; this good luck happens to the wise
man alone = it is only the wise man who has this good luck.
7. Carefully to be distinguished are the uses of primus, and the ad-
verbs prlmum, first, for the first time, and primo, at first. Prlmum means
first in a series ; prlmS, first in a contrast. But these distinctions are
not always observed.
Prlmum docent esse decs, deinde quales sint, turn mundum ab ils admi-
nistrari, postrgmS consulere eos rgbus humanls, G.,N.D.,u. i, 3 ; first,
they teach us that there are gods, next of what nature they are, then
that the world is ruled by them, finally, that they take thought for
human affairs. Primo Stoicorum more agamus, deinde nostro institiito
vagabimur, C., Tusc., in. 6, 13 ; let us treat the subject at first after the
manner of the Stoics, afterwards we will ramble after our own fashion.
B.
1. Multiplication of the Predicate.
326. The Multiplication of the Predicate requires no fur-
ther rules than those that have been given in the general
doctrine of Concord.
2. Qualification of the Predicate.
327. The Qualification of the Predicate may be regarded
as an External or an Internal change :
EXTEKNAL CHANGE — ACCUSATIVE. 2O?
I. External change : combination with an object.
i. Direct Object, Accusative. 2. Indirect Object, Dative.
II. Internal change : combination with an attribute which
may be in the form of
1. The Genitive case. 3. Preposition with a case.
2. The Ablative. 4. An Adverb.
NOTE.— The Infinitive forms (Infinitive, Gerund, Gerundive, and Supine) appear
now as objects, now as attributes, and require a separate treatment.
I. External Change.
Accusative.
The great function of the Accusative is to form temporary compounds with the verb,
as the great function of the Genitive is to form temporary compounds with the noun.
Beyond this statement everything is more or less extra-grammatical, and sharp sub-
divisions are often unsatisfactory. Still it may be said that
328. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object.
The Direct Object is the object which defines directly the
action of the verb.
REMARK. — The Dative defines indirectly because it involves an Ac-
cusative ; and the Genitive with the verb depends upon the nominal
idea contained in the verb.
1. (a) The Object may be contained in the verb (Inner
Object, Object Effected) :
Deus mundum creavit, God made a creation — the universe.
(b) Akin to this is the Accusative of Extent :
A rScta conscientia traversum unguem non oportet discedere, C., Att.,
xin. 20, 4 ; one ought not to swerve a nailbreadth from a right conscience.
Decem ann5s (Troia) oppugnSta est, L., v. 4, 11 ; ten years was Troy
lesieged. Maximam partem lacte vivunt, CAES., B.G., iv. i, 8 ; for the
most part they live on milk.
2. The object may be distinct from the verb (Outer Ob-
ject, Object Affected) :
Deus mundum gubernat, God steers the universe.
2O8 ACCUSATIVE.
General View of the Accusative.
329. I. Inner Object : Object Effected :
Cognate Accusative.
Accusative of Extent.
1. In Space.
2. In Time.
3. In Degree.
Terminal Accusative (Point Reached).
II. Outer Object : Object Affected :
1. Whole.
2. Part (so-called Greek Accusative).
III. Inner and Outer Objects combined :
1. Asking and Teaching.
2. Making and Taking.
IV. Accusative as the most general form of the object (object
created or called up by the mind) :
1. In Exclamations.
2. Accusative and Infinitive.
DIRECT OBJECT (Inner and Outer).
NOTE. — The Accusative is the object reached by the verb. This object is either in
apposition to the result of the action of the verb, and then it is called the Inner Object
or Object Effected ; or it is in attribution to the result of the action, and then it is said
to be the Outer Object or Object Affected. The Inner Object is sometimes called the
Voluntary Accusative, because it is already contained in the verb ; the Outer Object is
sometimes called the Necessary Accusative, because it is needed to define the character
of the action ; both verb and substantive contribute to the result ; compare hominem
caedere (occldere), to slay a man (Object Affected), with homicidium facere (6Jf.
QUINT., v. 9,9), to commit manslaughter (Object Effected).
330. Active Transitive Verbs take the Accusative case :
Eomulus TJrbem Eomam condidit, Cf. C., Div., I. 17, 80 ; Romulus
founded the City of Rome. (Object Effected.)
[MSns] regit corpus, C., Rep., vi. 24, 26 ; mind governs body. (Object
Affected.)
REMARK. — Many verbs of Emotion which are intrans. in English are
trans, in Latin, as : dolere, to grieve (for) ; dgspgrare, to despair (of);
horrere, to shudder (at) ; mlrarl, to wonder (at) ; rldSre, to laugh (at).
Honores d6sp5rant, C., Oat., n. 9, 19 ; they despair of honours (give
them up in despair). Necata est Vitia quod fllil necem flgvisset (541),
TAC., Ann., vr. 10, 1 ; Vitia was executed for having wept (for) her son's
execution. Conscia mens rSctl Famae mendacia risit, Ov., F.,i\. 311 ;
conscious of right, her soul (but) laughed (at) the falsehoods of Rumour.
ACCUSATIVE. 2O9
NOTES.— 1. From the definition of transitive given above (213, R.) it will be seen that
this traditional rule reverses the poles ; it is retained merely for practical purposes.
2. This Ace. with verbs of Emotion is very rare in early Latin, and is not widely
extended even in the classical period. With most verbs an Abl. of Cause or a preposi-
tional phrase is much more common, as : Cur d5 sua virtute desperarent ? CAES.,
B. G.,i. 40, 4.
3. The Ace. with verbal substantives is confined to PLAUTUS : quid tibl n5s
tactiSst, mendlce homo ? Aul., 423.
4. The Ace. with verbal adjectives in -undus is rare and mainly post-classical :
Haec prope contionabundus circumibat homines, L., in. 47, 2.
331. Verbs compounded with, the prepositions ad, ante,
circum, con, in, inter, ob, per, praeter, sub, subter, super, and
trans, which become transitive, take the Accusative.
All with circum, per, praeter, trans, and subter.
Many with ad, in, and super.
Some with ante, con, inter, ob, and sub. See 347.
Pythagoras Persarum magos adiit, C., Fin., v. 29, 87 ; Pythagoras
applied to (consulted) the Persian magi. Stella Veneris antegreditur
solem, C., N.D., n. 20, 53 ; the star Venus goes in advance of the sun.
OmnSs Domitium circumsistunt, CAES., B.C., i. 20, 5 ; all surround Do-
mitius. Earn, si opus esse videbitur, ipse conveniam, C., Fam., v. n, 2 ;
I will go to see her, myself, if it shall seem expedient. Convlvia cum
patre n5n inibat, C., Rose. Am., 18, 52 ; he would not go to banquets with
his father. Fretum, quod Naupactum et Patras interfluit, L. , xxvu. 29, 9 ;
the frith that flan's between Naupactus and Patrae. Alexander tertio
et tricesimo annO mortem obiit, C., Ph., v. 17, 48 ; Alexander died in his
thirty-third year. Caesar omnem agrum Plcenum percurrit, CAES., B.C.,
i. 15, 1 ; Caesar traversed rapidly all the Picenian district. [Populus]
solet dlgnos praeterire, C., Plane., 3, 8 ; the people is wont to pass by the
worthy. Epaminondas poenam subiit, Cf. NEP., xv. 8, 2 ; Epaminondas
submitted to the punishment. Criminum vim subterfugere nullo mode
poterat, C., Verr., I. 3, 8 ; he could in no way evade the force of the
charges. Roman! rulnas murl supervadebant, L., xxxn. 24, 5 ; the
Romans marched over the ruins of the wall. Crassus Euphratem nulls
belli causa transiit, Cf. C., Fin., 111.22, 75; Crassus crossed the Euphrates
without any cause for war.
REMARKS. — i. If the simple verb is trans., it can take two Accusa-
tives : Equitum magnam partem flumen traiecit, CAES., B. C., i. 55, 1 ; he
threw a great part of the cavalry across the river.
2. With many of these verbs the preposition may be repeated ; but
never circum : C5pias traiecit Bhodaaum, or trans Rhodanum, he threw his
troops across the Rhone.
3. Sometimes a difference of signification is caused by the addition
of the preposition :
14
2IO ACCUSATIVE.
Adlre ad aliquem, to go to a man ; adlre aliquern, to apply to (to con-
sult) a man.
INNER OBJECT.
332. Any verb can take an Accusative of the Inner Object,
when that object serves to define more narrowly or to explain
more fully the contents of the verb.
The most common form of this object is a neuter pronoun or adjec-
tive.
The most striking form is the so-called Cognate Accusative.
333. i. Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives are often used
to define or modify the substantive notion that lies in the
verb.
XenophSn eadera fere" peccat, G.,N.D., I. 12, 31 ; Xenophon makes
very much the same mistakes. Vellem equidem idem possem gloriarl quod
Cyrus, C., Cat.M., 10, 32 ; for my part I could wish that it were in my
power to make the same boast as Cyrus.
With trans, verbs an Ace. of the person can be employed besides:
DIscipulos id unurn moneo ut praeceptores suds non minus quam ipsa
studia ament, QUINT., n. 9, 1 ; / give pupils this one piece of advice,
that they love their teachers no less than their studies themselves.
REMARKS. — i. The usage is best felt by comparing the familiar Eng-
lish it after intrans. verbs, " to walk it, to foot it," etc., where " it "
represents the substantive that lies in ' ' walk, foot, " etc.
2. In many cases the feeling of the case is lost to the consciousness,
so especially with the interrogative quid, which has almost the force of
cur. Quid rides ? ichat (laughter) are you laughing = what means your
laughter ?
Id nos ad tS, si quid vellSs, vgnimus, PL., M.G., 1158 ; that's why we
have come to you, to see if you wanted anything.
NOTES.— 1. With verbs of Emotion this Ace. gives the ground of the emotion :
TTtrumque laetor (/ have a double gladness, I am doubly glad), et sine dolore t6
fuisse et animo valuisse, c., Fam., vii. i, l. Laetae exclamant : venit ! id quod
(in this that, for this that) mS repente aspexerant, TEK., Hec., 368.
From this arises the causal force of quod, in that — because.
2. Occasionally, but at all periods, the relative is used thus, to facilitate connection
with a demonstrative clause :
Quae homings arant (what men do in the way of plowing, etc.), navigant, aedifi-
cant, omnia virtutl parent, 9., C., 2, 7. Id ipsum quod maneam in vita (in the
very fact of my remaining in life) peccare m6 [existimS], C., Fam., iv. 13, 2.
2. Cognate Accusative. — When the dependent word is of
the same origin or of kindred meaning with the verb, it is
called the Cognate Accusative, and usually has an attribute.
ACCUSATIVE. 211
Faciam tit mel memineris dum vltam vivas, PL. , Pers. , 494 ; I'll make
you think of me the longest day you live. Minna atque inscltum somniavl
somnium, PL., Rud., 597 ; a marvellous anduncanny dream I've dreamed.
luravi vSrissimum ius iurandum, C., Fam., v. 2, 7; I swore the truest of
oaths.
REMARK. — After the analogy of the Cognate Ace. are many phrase-
ological usages, such as rem certare, to fight a case ; foedus ferire, to make
a treaty (compare, to strike a bargain); ius respondere, to render an
opinion ; causam vincere, to win a case, etc. Also the phrases with
Ire : exsequias Ire, to attend a funeral ; Infitias Ire, to deny, etc.
NOTES.— 1. The omission of the attribute is found most often in legal phraseology,
proverbs, and the like :
Maidrum nSmd servitutem servlvit, C., Top., 6, 29 ; of our ancestors no one ever
slaved (what you would call) a slavery. SI servos furtum faxit noxiamve noxit,
xii. Tab.
2. When the Cognate Ace. is replaced by a word of similar meaning, but of a differ-
ent root, the effect is much the same as when an adjective is employed with the normal
Accusative. This usage, however, is rare, and mainly poetical.
Tertiam iam aetatem hominnm (Nestor) vivSbat, C., Cat.M., 10,31 (reading
doubtful). Omue mllitabitur bellum, H. , Epod., i, 23.
3. Interesting extensions are found in the poets, and rarely in prose.
Qul Curios simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt, Juv., n. 3. Nunc Satyrum,
nunc agrestem Cyclopa movStur, H., Ep., n. a, 125.
4. Instead of the Inner Ace. the Abl. is occasionally found : lapidibus pluere, to
rain stones ; sanguine sudare, to sweat blood.
Herculis simulacrum multo sudflre manavit, C.,Div., i. 34,74; the statue of
Hercules ran freely with sweat.
5. Verbs of Smell and Taste have the Inner Object, which is an extension of the
Cognate variety.
Fiscis sapit ipsum mare, Cf. SEN., N. Q., in. 18, 2 ; thejlsh tastes of the very sea.
N5n oinnes possunt olSre unguenta exotica, PL., Most., 42 ; it is not every one can
smell of foreign perfumes.
6. A poetical and post-classical construction is that which makes a substantival
neuter adjective the object of a verb. This occurs chiefly with verbs of sound : nee
mortale sonans, V., A., vi. 50 ; magna sonaturum, H., S., i. 4, 44. Yet bolder is
nee v5x hominem sonat, V., ^.,1.328. A verb of sight is found in tarn cernis
acu turn, H., A, i. 3, 26. Cf. dulce rldentem, H., O., <i. 22, 23.
Accusative of Extent.
The Accusative of Extent has to do with Degree, Space,
or Time.
334. The Accusative of Extent in Degree is confined to
neuter adjectives and pronouns used substantively, multum,
plus, tantum, quantum, etc.
Si mS amas tantum quantum prefects amas, C., Att., u. 20, 5 ; if you
love me as much as in fact you do love me.
212 ACCUSATIVE.
REMARKS. — i. The number of adjectives and pronouns so used is
large, and in many cases the form is felt more as an adverb than as a
substantive.
2. Here belong the adverbial Accusatives tuam, etc. , partem, vicem,
which occur occasionally at all periods.
335. The Accusative of Extent in Space is used properly
only with words that involve a notion of space. When space
is not involved in the governing word the idea of extent is
given by the use of per, through.
Trabgs, distantSs inter s6 binds pedSs, in solo collocantur, CAES., B.G.,
vu. 23, 1 ; beams two feet apart are planted in the ground. A recta c5n-
scientia traversum unguem non oportet discedere, C. Att., xin. 20, 4 (328,
b). Equites per oram maritimam dispositi sunt, Cf. CAES., B.C., m. 24,
4 ; cavalry were posted along the sea shore. Phoebidas iter per Th§bas
[fecit], NEP., xvi. i, 2 ; Phoebidas marched through Thebes. Mllites
aggerem latum pedes trecentos triginta altum pedes octoginta exstruxe-
runt, CAES., B.G., vu. 24, 1; the soldiers raised an embankment three
hundred and thirty feet wide (and) eighty feet high.
REMARKS. — i. The adjectives in most common use with this Accusa-
tive are longus, long, latus, wide, altus, deep, high. Thickness, which
was indicated in early times by crassus, is expressed by phrases with
crassitude. Similarly occur phrases with magnitude, longitude, latitude,
altitude. Profundus, deep, never occurs with the Accusative.
2. With abesse and distare, an Abl. of Measure may also be used :
Milibus passuum quattuor et vlginti abesse, CAES., E.G., i. 41, 5 ; to
be twenty- four miles from
NOTE.— When the point of reference is taken for granted, ab (a) with the Abl. is
occasionally used ; but only by CAESAB and LIVT. Here it has been suggested that ab
is used adverbially, and the Abl. is one of Measure.
(Host6s) ab milibus passuum minus duobus castra posuSrunt, CAES., B.G.,
ii. 7, 3 ; the enemy pitched their camp less than two miles off.
336. The Accusative of Extent in Time accompanies the
verb, either with or without per, in answer to the question,
How long 9
Duodequadraginta annos tyrannus Syracusanorum fuit Dionysius, C.,
Tusc., v. 20, 57 ; thirty-eight years was Dionysius tyrant of Syracuse.
(Gorgias) centum et novem visit annos, QUINT., in. i, 9 (333, N. 2). Ludl
per decem digs fact! sunt, C., Cat., in. 8, 20 ; games were performed for
ten days. Est niecum per diem tStum, PLIN., Ep., i. 16, 7 ; he is with me
the livelong day. Sedet aeternumque sedebit infSlIx Theseus, V., A., vi.
617 ; there sits and shall forever sit unhappy Theseus.
ACCUSATIVE. 213
REMARKS. — i. In giving definite numbers with lam, iam diu, iam
dudum, etc., the Latin often employs the ordinal where the English
prefers the cardinal. Compare the Ablative of Measure (403).
Mithridates annum iamtertium et vicesimum rggnat, G.,Imp., 3, 7 (230).
2. Per with the Ace. is frequently used like the Abl. of Time Within
Which. Per ilia tempora = illis temporibus, in those times.
So especially with the negative :
Nulla r5s per triennium nisi ad nutum istius iudicata est, C., Verr., i.
5, 13 ; no matter was decided during (in) the three years except at his
beck.
3. With an Aoristie tense the dating point is given by abhinc, which
usually precedes the temporal designation.
Abhinc annos factumst sSdecim, PL., Cas., 39 ; 'twas done sixteen years
ago. D6mosthen6s abhinc annos prope trecentos fuit, C., Div., u. 57, 118;
Demosthenes lived nearly three hundred years ago.
The use of an Ace. with an Aoristie tense without a dating word, like abhinc, is
very rare and doubtful. CAES., B. G., n. 35, 4, has been emended.
4. Natus, old (born), seems to be an exception to R. 3, but it is only
an apparent one, as the dating point is involved in the verb with which
it is construed. For various constructions with natus, see 296, R. 5.
Puer decem annos natus est, the boy is ten years old. Quadraginta
annos natus rSgnare [coepit], C., Div., i. 23, 46 ; (he was) forty years
old (when) he began to reign.
NOTES. — 1. The use of the indefinite substantival adjective is rare. PLAUTUS uses
serapiternum, VERGTL introduces aeternum (see example above), while perpetuum
does not appear until APULBIUS.
2. Here belong the phraseological uses id temporis, id aetatis, which belonged to
the popular speech, and never became firmly rooted in literature. Thus CICERO rarely
uses them, except in his earliest works and his letters. Id genus is used after the same
general analogy, but is not temporal. This occurs in CICEBO but once, Alt., xin. 12, 3.
CAESAR never uses any of these forms.
3. Poetical and rare is the extension which makes the Accusative of Extent the sub-
ject of a passive verb. »
Nunctertiavlvitur aetas, Ov., M., xn. 188 = nunc tertiam vivitur aetatem.
Tota mini dormltur hiems, MART., xni. 59, l = totam dormio hiemem.
Normally the verb becomes impersonal or is regularly used with a proper subject,
and the Accusative of Extent is unchanged : [Bellum] quo duodecimum annum
Italia urgbatur, L., xxvn. 39, 9.
Accusative of the Local Object.
Terminal Accusative.
337. The activity of a verb may be defined by the Point
Reached. Hence the rule : Names of Towns and small
Islands, when used as limits of Motion Whither, are put in
the Accusative.
214 ACCUSATIVE.
So also rus, into the country, domum, domds, home.
MissI legati Athgnas sunt, L., in. 31, 8 ; envoys were sent to Athens.
Latona confugit Delum, Cf. C., Verr., i. 18, 48 ; Latona took refuge in
Delos. Ego rus ibo atque ibi manebo, TER., Eun., 216; I shall go to
the country and stay there. Innumerabiles (pbilosopb.1) numquam domum
reverterunt, C., Tusc., v. 37, 107 ; innumerable philosophers never re-
turned home.
REMARKS. — i. Countries and large islands being looked \ipon as
areas, and not as points, require prepositions, such as : in, into ; ad, to ;
versus, -ward ; in Graeciam proficiscl, to set out for Greece.
2. When nrbem, city, or oppidum, town, precedes the name of the
city or town, the idea of area is emphasised, and the preposition in or
ad is prefixed ; if urbem or oppidum follows, in or ad may be omitted :
In (ad) oppidum Cirtam, to, in (at) the town (of) Cirta.
When urbem or oppidum is qualified by an adjective, it regularly fol-
lows the name of the town, and has the preposition :
lugurtha Thalam pervenit in oppidum magnum et opulentum, S., lug.,
75, 1 ; Jugurtha arrived at Thala, a great and wealthy town.
3. Domum, with a possessive pronoun, or Gen., may mean house
as well as home, and accordingly may or may not have in before it :
domum meam, or, in domum meam, to my house ; domum Pompeii, or, in
domum Pompeii, to Pompey's house ; also domum ad Pompgium. Other-
wise : in magnificam domum venire, to come into a grand house.
4. Ad means to the neighbourhood of, often before, of military
operations. Ad Mutinam, to the neighbourhood (siege of) Mutina
(Modena).
5. The simple Ace. will suffice even for extent :
Omnia ilia municipia, quae sunt a Viboue Brundisium, C., Plane., 41, 97;
all the free towns from Vibo to Brundisium.
6. Motion to a place embraces all the local designations :
Phalara in sinum Maliacum procgsserat, L., xxxv. 43, 8 ; he had ad-
vanced to Phalara on the Naliac Gulf. Tarentum in Italiam inferiorem
proficiscl, to set out for Tarentum in Lower Italy.
NOTES.— 1. The omission of the preposition before countries and large islands is
poetical and post-classical. CAESAR shows such omission with Aegyptus only, CICERO
not at all.
2. Poets and later prose writers extend the Ace. also to names of peoples and streams.
Beginnings of this are seen in CICERO : cum Bosphorum cSnfugisset, Mur., 16, 34. *
3. The insertion of the preposition with names of towns and small islands is rare in
good prose, but is always? legitimate when the preposition is to be emphasised.
4. The use of usque with this Ace. to emphasise the continuity of the motion is
found first in TERENCE, occasionally iu CICERO. From LIVT on it spreads and is used
also with other local designations.
5. Verbal substantives are also occasionally followed by this Accusative : KeditUS
Bomam, C., Ph., n. 42, 108 ; return to Rome.
ACCUSATIVE. 215
OUTER OBJECT.
Accusative of Respect.
338. The Accusative of the object affected sometimes specifies that
in respect to which the statement of a passive or intransitive verb,
or an adjective, applies. There are two varieties :
1. Definite: The Accusative of the part affected.
Percussa, nova mentem formldine, V., G., iv. 357 ; her mind stricken
with a new dread. lam vulgatum actis quoque saucius pectus, QUINT.,
ix. 3, 17 ; by this time " breast-wounded" is actually become a common
newspaper phrase.
2. Indefinite : cetera, alia, reliqua, oinnia, pleraque, cuncta ; in other
respects, in all respects, in most respects.
Cetera adsentior CrassS, C., Or., i. 9, 35 ; in all other points I agree
with Crassus. Omnia Mercurio similis, V., A., iv. 558 ; in all respects
like unto Mercury.
NOTES.— 1. This is commonly called the Greek Accusative, because it is so much
more common in Greek, and because its extension in Latin is due to Greek influence.
The first variety is very rare in early Latin ; introduced into prose by SALLUST, it ia
extended in LIVY, but in both is applied usually to wounds. It is much more common
in the poets. Of the second variety cStera is found here and there at all periods ; the
others are very rare. Good prose uses the Ablative for the first variety, and for the
second, ad cetera, in cSteris, per cStera, etc.
2. Different is the Accusative with induor, / don ; exuor, I doff; cingor, / gird on
myself, and other verbs of clothing and unclothing, as well as passives, where the
Subject is also the Agent ; in which verbs the reflexive or middle signification is retained.
These uses are poetical or post-classical.
Inutile ferrum cingitur, V.,^1., 11.510 ; he girds on (himself) a useless blade.
LQricam induitur fldoque accingitur Snse, V., A., VH. 640 ; he dons a corselet and
begirds himself with his trusty glaive. (Arminius) impetu equl pervasit oblitus
faciem suo cruore n§ n5scere"tur, TAG., Ann. 11.17,7; Hermann pushed his way
through, thanks to the onset of his charger, having smeared his face with his own gore,
to keep from being recognised.
DOUBLE ACCUSATIVE (Inner and Outer).
When two Accusatives depend on the same verb, one is the Inner and the other the
Outer object. Theoretically any combination of Inner and Outer objects is allowable ;
practically the language has restricted its usage to varieties a and b.
339. (a) Active verbs signifying to Inquire, to Require,
to Teach, and celare, to conceal, take two Accusatives, one
of the Person, and the other of the Thing.
PusiSnem quondam Socrates interrogat quaedam ge5metrica, C., Tusc.,
i. 24, 57 ; Socrates asks an urchin sundry questions in geometry.
Caesar Aeduos frumentum flagitabat, CAES. ,B.G., i. 16, 1 ; Caesar kept
demanding the corn of the Aedui. Quid nunc tS, asine, litteras doceam 1
(265), C., Pis., 30, 73 ; why should I now give you a lesson in literature,
2l6 ACCUSATIVE.
you donkey ? Non te celavl sermonem Ampii, C., Fam., n. 16, 3, / did not
keep you in the dark about my talk with Ampins.
REMARKS. — i. The expressions vary a good deal. Observe :
This then is not the only way, Posco, / claim, and flagit5,
For it is also right to say, And always peto, postulo,
Docere and celare de, Take aliquid ab aliquo,
Interrogate dg qua re. While quaero takes ex, ab, dg, qu5.
Adherbal Eomam legates miserat, qul senatum docerent de caede fra-
tris, S., lug., 13, 3 ; Adherbal had sent envoys to Rome to inform the
senate of the murder of his brother. Bassus noster me de hoc libro cela-
vit, C., Fam., vu. 20, 3 ; our friend Bassus has kept me in the dark
about this book. Aquam a pumice nunc postulas, PL., Pers., 41 ; you are
now asking water of a pumice-stone (blood of a turnip).
2. With doceo the Abl. of the Instrument is also used : docere fidibus,
equo, to teach the lyre, to teach riding ; with grudire, the Abl., in with
the Abl. or (rarely) dS. Doctus and erudltus generally take the Abl. :
Doctus Graecis lltteris, a good Grecian.
3. With celarl the Ace. of the Thing becomes the subject, and the
Ace. of the Person is retained ; or the Ace. of the Person is made the
subject, and instead of the Ace. of the Thing, d6 with the Abl. is used.
NOTES.— 1. There is a great deal of difference ia the relative frequency of these
verbs. So doceo and its compounds, rogo, posco, repOSCS, C516, are common ; in-
terrogo, oro, exposed, postulo, flagito, consulo, are rare, exigS (in passive), per-
contor, are ante-classical and post-classical. So, too, the classical Latin in general
avoids two Accusatives, unless one is a neuter pronoun.
2. The construction with ab, with verbs of Requiring, is much more common than
the double Ace., and in some cases is necessary ; so, too, the construction with d6 after
verbs of Inquiring.
3. Other verbs of teaching than doceo and its compounds, and Srudlre, always have
dS until late Latin, as instruere, etc. So docere, when it means to inform.
4. The Passive form, with the Nom. of the Person and the Ace. of the Thing, is
sparingly used. Discere is the prose word for docSrl, except that the past participle
doctus is classical but rare.
Motus doceri gaudet lonicos matura virgS, H., 0.,m. 6,21 ; the rare ripe
maid delights to learn Ionic dances. Vir omnes belli art6s edoctus, L., xxv. 40, 5 ;
one who had learned (been taught) thoroughly all the arts of war.
340. (b) Verbs of Naming, Making, Taking, Choosing,
Showing, may have two Accusatives of the same Person or
Thing :
[Iram] bene Ennius initium dixit Insaniae, C. , Tusc., iv. 23, 52 ; well did
Ennius call anger the beginning of madness. Ancum Marcium rggem
populus creavit, L., i. 32, 1 ; the people made Ancus Marcius king. Gate
Valerium Flaccum habuit collegam, Cf. NEP., xxiv. i, 2; Cato had Valerius
Flaccus (as) colleague. Bum simillimum deo iudico, C., Marc., 3, 8 ; 1
judge him (to be) very like unto a god. AthSniensibus Pythia praecepit ut
ACCUSATIVE. 217
Miltiadem sib! imperatorem sumerent, NEP., i. i, 3 ; the Pythia instructed
the Athenians to take Miltiades (as) their commander. Praesta tS eum
qul mini es cognitus, C., Fam., i. 6, 2 ; show yourself the man that I
know you to be. Quern intellegimus divitem ? C., Par., vi. i, 42 ; whom
do we understand by the rich man ?
REMAKKS. — i. The Double Ace. is turned into the Double Nom.
with the Passive (206). Reddo, I render, is not used in the Passive, but,
instead thereof, fio, / become.
Habeo, with two Accusatives, commonly means to have ; in the sense
of hold, regard, other turns ane used ; usually pro.
Utrum pro ancilla me" habes an pro fflia ? PL., Pers., 341 ; do you look
upon me as a maid-servant or as a daughter ?
Similarly habere servorum Ioc5, (in) numero deorum, to regard as slaves,
as gods.
2. With verbs of Taking and Choosing the end is indicated by the
Dat. or ad with Accusative.
(Romulus) trecentos armatos ad custotliam corporis habuit, L., I. 15, 8 ;
Romulus had three hundred armed men as a body-guard.
341. (c) Double Accusatives, where one is the cognate, are very
uncommon :
Tg bonas preces precor, CATO, R.R., i. 3, 4. Tarn tS basia multa basiare
vSsan5 satis et super Catullost, CAT., vn. 9.
NOTES. — 1. Curious extensions occasionally occur :
Idem ius iurandum adigit Afranium, CABS., B. C., i. 76.
2. In early Latin frequently, and in later times occasionally, the Inner object is
given by a neuter pronoun, in the simplest form. Quid mS vis ? what do you want
of me? what do you want me for ? So with prohibSre ; also with iubBre (once in
CICERO and CAESAR), admonSre, etc.
Neque m§ IQppiter neque dl omnSs id prohibebunt, PL., Am., 1051. Iltterae
quae tS aliquid iubSrent, C., Fam., xm. 26, 3.
342. (d) In early Latin we find cases of two Accusatives with a
single verb, where the verb forms a single phrase with one of the Accu-
satives, and the second Accusative is the object of the phrase : animum
advertere, to perceive; ludos facere, to make game of; manum inicere, to
lay hands on, etc. In classical Latin these phrases have been usually,
where possible, formed into a single word : animadvertere, ludificari.
Animum advertit Gracchus in contione Fisonem stantem, C., Tusc., in.
20, 48 ; Gracchus perceived Piso standing in the assembly.
NOTE. — On the Double Accusative with compound verbs, see 331, R. i.
ACCUSATIVE AS A GENERAL OBJECTIVE CASE.
343. The Accusative as the Objective Case generally ift
used as an object of Thought, Perception, Emotion ; an ob-
2l8 DATIVE.
ject created by the mind, evoked or deprecated by the will.
Hence the use of the Accusative :
(a) In Exclamations. (6) With the Infinitive.
1 . The Accusative is used in Exclamations as the general
object of Thought, Perception, or Emotion :
MS miserum, C., Fam., xiv. i, 1 ; poor me ! MS caecum qui haec ante
non viderim, C., Att., x. 10, 1 ; Hind me ! not to have seen all this before.
So in Exclamatory Questions :
QuO mini fortunam, si non concSditur utl ? H., Ep., i. 5, 12 ; what (is
the object of) fortune to me if Tm not allowed to enjoy it ?
Interjections are used :
Heu me miserum ! Alas .' poor me ! 0 miseras hominum mentes, 0
pectora caeca, LUCR., n. 14 ; oh, the wretched minds of men, oh, the
blind hearts !
So, in apposition to a sentence, see 324.
NOTES. — 1. 0 with the Voc. is an address ; with the Nora, a characteristic ; with
the Ace. an object of emotion.
2. Em, Lo ! and Ecce, Lo here ! have the Ace. in the earlier language :
Em tibl hominem! PL., Asin., 880 ; here's your man! Ecce m6 ! PL., Ep., 680 ;
here am I.'
So eccum, ellum, eccam, eccillam, in comic poetry.
Ecce takes only the Nom. in classical Latin. Distinguish between em and 6n, the
latter of which, in the sense to / does not appear until CICERO'S time, and takes the
Nominative.
Pr6 takes the Vocative : Pr5 di immortalSs ! Ye immortal gods ! The Accusative
occurs in: PrOdeumatquehominumfidem! C.,Tusc.^.i6,4&\forheaven^ssake!
and similar phrases.
Ei (hei) ! and Vae ! take the Dative.
Ei mini ! Ah me! Vae victis ! Woe to the conquered !
2. The Accusative and the Infinitive are combined so as
to present the notion of Subject and Predicate as an object
of thought or perception (527). Hence the Accusative with
the Infinitive is used :
(a) In Exclamations. (See 534.)
(b) As an Object. (See 527.)
(c) As a Subject. (See 535.}
DATIVE.
344. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object, and
always involves a Direct Object, which may be contained in
the verb or expressed by the complex of verb and object.
DATIVE. 219
N5mo errat unl sibl, SEN., E.M., 94, 54 ; no one errs (makes mistakes)
to (for) himself alone. Non omnibus dormiS, C., Fam., vn. 24, 1 ; it is
not for everybody that I am asleep. Tib! exercitum patria pr5 sS dedit,
C., Ph., xm. 6, 14 ; your country gave you an army for its own defence.
Mulier sibi felicior quam viris, C., Ph., v. 4, 11.
NOTE.— In English the form of the Indirect Object is the same as that of the
Direct : " He showed me (Dat.) a pure river ; " " he showed me (Ace.) to the priest."
Originally a case of Personal Interest, it is used freely of Personified Things, sparingly
of Local Relations, and this despite the fact that Locative and Dative are blended in the
First and Third Declensions. If a Locative, the Dative is a sentient Locative.
Dative with Transitive Verbs.
345. The Indirect Object is put in the Dative with Transi-
tive verbs, which already have a Direct Object in the Accusa-
tive. Translation, to, for, from. This Accusative becomes
the Nominative of the Passive. The Dative depends on the
complex.
Active Form :
To : Facile omngs, quom valSmus, recta c5nsilia aegrStls damus, TER.,
And., 309 ; readily all of us, when well, give good counsel to the sick.
FOR : Frangam tonsorl crura manusque sim.ul, MART., XT. 58, 10 ; Td
break the barber's legs for him and hands at once.
FROM : Somnum mini [adfimit], C., Alt., n. 16, 1 ; it took my sleep away
from me.
Passive Form :
Merces mibi gloria dstur, Ov., F., in. 389; let glory be given TO me as a
reward. Immeritls franguntur crura caballls, Juv. , x, 60 ; the, innocent
hacks get their legs broken FOR them. Anna [adimuntnr] militibus, L.,
xxn. 44, 6 ; the soldiers have their arms taken FROM them. Domus pul-
chra dominls aedificatur non muribus, Cf. C., N.D., in. 10, 26 ; a handsome
house is built for its owners, not for the mice.
REMARKS. — i. These constructions are found with more or less fre-
quency at, all periods. But the Dat. with verbs of Taking Away, Pro-
hibiting, and the like, is mostly confined to poetry and later prose.
The translation from is merely approximate, instead of for. When the
idea of Personal Interest is not involved, the Abl. is necessary.
Is frater, qul Sripuit fratrem carcere, non potuit Sripere fato, SEN., Dial,,
xi. 14, 4.
A good example of a play on construction is PL., Aul., 635 :
ST. Nih.il equidem tib! abstull. Eu. At illud quod tibi abstuleras cedo.
a. The translation For is nearer the Dat. than To. It is the regular
220 DATIVE.
form when the Ace. is that of the object effected ; when it is that of the
object affected the translation is more often to ; but for (in defence
of) is prQ : pro patria morl, to die for one's country. To (with a view
to) is ad or in, and when the idea of motion is involved, the preposition
must be used, even with dare, which gives its name to the Dative :
Litteras alicul dare, to give one a letter (to carry or to have).
Litteras ad aliquem dare, to indite a letter to one.
Rogas ut mea tibl scripta mittam, C., Fam., i. 9, 23 ; you ask me to
send you my writings (you wish to have them). Libros iam prldem ad
tg mlsissem si esse Sdendos putassem, C., Fam., i. 9, 23 ; I should have sent
the books to you long since if I had thought they ought to be published.
Dative with Intransitive Verbs.
346. The Indirect Object is put in the Dative with many
Intransitive Verbs of Advantage or Disadvantage, Yielding
and Besisting, Pleasure and Displeasure, Bidding and For-
bidding.
Fuit mirificus in Crasso pudor, qul tamen non obesset Sius oration!, 0.,
Or., i. 26, 122 ; Crassus had a marvellous modesty, not, however, such
as to be a bar to the effectiveness of his oratory. Ipsa sibl imbecillitas
indulget, C., Tusc., iv. 18, 42 ; weakness gives free course to itself. Pro-
bus invidet ngminl, C., Tim., 3, 9 ; your upright man cherishes envy to
no one. Catillna litteras mittit s6 fortunae cSdere, S., C., 34, 2; Catiline
writes that he gives way to fortune. Dies stultis quoque medSrl solet, C.,
Fam., vii., 28, 3 ; time is wont to prove a medicine even to fools. Mo-
derari et animo et orationl, est non mediocris ingenii, C., Q.F., I. n. 13, 38 ;
to put bounds both to temper and to language is the work of no mean
ability. Sic agam, ut ipsl auctorl huius discipllnae placet, C., Fin., i. 9,
29 ; I will act as it seems good to the head of this school (of thought)
himself. [Mundus] de5 paret et hulc oboediunt maria terraeque, C., Leg.,
in. i, 3 ; the universe is obedient to God, and seas and lands hearken
unto him. Virtutl suorum satis credit, Cf. S., lug., 106, 3; he puts
full confidence in the valour of his men. nil poena, n5bis llbertas [ap-
propinquat], C., Ph., iv. 4, 10; to him punishment, to us freedom, is draw-
ing nigh.
REMARKS. — i. Of course the passives of these verbs are used imper-
sonally (208) :
Qul invident egent, illls quibus invidetur, I rem habent, PL., True., 745 ;
those who envy are the needy, those who are envied have the stuff.
2. The verbs found with this Dat. in classical Latin are : prSdesse,
obesse, nocgre, conducit, ezpedit ; assentlrl, blandlrl, cupere, favgre, grati-
ficarl, gratulari, ignoscere, indulggre, morigerari, studSre, suffragari ; ad-
versari. insidiari. invidSre. irasci, maledlcere, minarl, minitari, obtrectare,
DATIVE. 221
officere, refrSgarl, suscSnsSre ; cSdere, concedere ; resistere ; auxiliari, con-
sulere, mederi, opitularl, parcere, prospicere ; moderari, temperare (sib!) ;
placgre, displicSre ; auscultare, imperare, oboedire, obsequl, obtemperare,
parere, persuadere, servlre, suadgre ; credere, fldere, confldere, diffidere,
despSrare ; accidit, contingit, Svenit ; libet, licet ; appropinquare, repugnare.
Also nubere, to marry (of a woman) ; supplicare, to implore.
NOTES.— 1. Some other verbs are used occasionally in the same way, as incommo-
dare, which CICERO uses once. Also, dolSre, with Dat. of suffering: person, is found
sometimes in CICERO, though it belongs rather to the Comic Poets.
2. Some of these words have also other constructions. These occur usually in ante-
classical and post-classical Latin ; if in classical Latin a different meaning is usually
found in the new construction. Thus indulgSre aliquid, to grant a thing, invidSre
alicul aliquid, obtrectare, with Ace., suadSre, persuade*re, with Ace. of the Per-
son, are post-classical and late ; moderari, with Ace., is found in LUCRETIUS and in
Silver Latin ; temperare, meaning mix, takes Ace. at all periods. Fldere, confi-
dere, diffidere are found also with Ablative.
Sometimes the personal interest is emphasised when the Dat. is employed, as over
against the Accusative. So regularly with verbs of Fearing, as : metuere aliquem,
to dread some one, but metuere alicui, to fear for some one ; cavSre alicul, to take
precautions for some one, but cavere aliquem (also de", ab aliquo), to take precau-
tions against some one ; cavere aliqua rS (early), to beware of a thing. Consulere
aliquem, to consult a person ; consulere alicul, to consult for a person. On con-
venire, see 347, R. 2.
Noteworthy are the constructions of invidere and vacare :
Invidere alicui (in) aliqua rS (Cic. uses prep ) I tobegrudgeamanatMng.
alicul aliquid (VERG., HOR., LIVY, etc.) >
alicuius rel (once in HORACE, S., n. 6, 84), to begrudge a thing.
(alicuius) alicul rei (common), to envy something belonging to a man.
Vacare rei, to be at leisure for, to attend to I
re, a re", to be at leisure from >
Sometimes there is hardly any difference in meaning :
Comitor aliquem, / accompany a man ; comitor alicui, / act as companion to a
man ; praestolor alicui (better) or aliquem, I wait for.
3. Some words with similar meanings take the Accusative ; the most notable are :
aequare, to be equal ; decere (to distinguish), to be becoming ; deficere, to be want-
ing'; dSlectare, to please ; iuvare, to be a help ; iubere, to order ; laedere, to in-
jure ; and vetare, to forbid.
Earn picturam imitati sunt multi, aequavit nem§, PLIN., N.H., xxxv. n,
126 ; that style of painting many have imitated, none equalled. F5rma viros neglecta
decet, Ov., A, A., i. 509 ; a careless beauty is becoming to men. Me di5s dSficiat, Of.
C., Verr., n. 21, 52 ; the day would fail me. Fortis fortuna adiuvat, TER., Ph., 203 ;
fortune favours tJie brave.
TACITUS is the first to use iubBre with Dative ; Ann., iv. 72, etc.
4. The Dat. use is often obscured by the absence of etymological translation. So
nubere alicul, to marry a man (to veil for him) ; mederi alicui, to heal (to take
one's measures for) a man ,'^supplicare, to beg (to bow the knee to) ; persuadSre, to
persuade (to make it sweet).
5. After the analogy of verbs the phrases audientem esse, to hear, i.e., to obey,
supplicem esse, to entreat, auctorem esse, to advise, fidem habere, to have faith in,
are also found with the Dative :
SI potest tibi dict5 audiSns esse quisquam, C., Verr., i. 44, 114.
6. The poets are very free in their use of the Dat. with verbs of the same general
222 DATIVE.
meaning as those given. So sS mlsc6re, to mingle u-ith ; colre, concurrere, to meet ;
verbs of contending, as contendere, bellare, pugnare, certare ; verbs of disagree-
ment, as differre, discrepare, dlstare, dissentlre. Here belongs haergre \\ith the
Dat., as V., A., iv. 73, which may, however, be a Locative construction.
Dative and Verbs Compounded with Prepositions.
347. Many verbs compounded with the prepositions ad,
ante, con, in, inter, ob, (post), prae, sub, and super, take the
Dative, especially in moral relations.
Transitive Verbs have an Accusative case besides.
Plebes cuncta comitils adfuit, C., Plane., 8, 21 ; the entire commonalty
was present at the election. Omnis sgnsus hominum multo antecellit s6n-
sibus bestiarum, C., N.D., n. 57, 145 ; every sense of man is far superior
to the senses of beasts. (Ennius) equl fortis et victSris senectuti comparat
suam, C., Cat.M., 5, 14 ; Ennius compares his (old age) to the old age
of a gallant and winning steed. Imminent duo rgggs totl Asiae, C.,
Imp., 5, 12 ; two kings are menaces to all Asia. Interes cfinsilils, C.,
Aft., xiv. 22, 2 ; you are in their councils, are privy to their plans. Piger
ipse sibi obstat, PROV. (311, 2). Omnibus Druidibus praeest Onus, CAES.,
B.O., vi. 13, 8 ; at the head of all the Druids is one man. Anatum 5va
galllnis saepe supponimus, C., N.D., n. 48, 124 ; we often put ducks' eggs
under hens (for them to hatch). Neque deesse neque superesse rei publi-
cae vo!5, C. (PoLLio), Fam.;~s.. 33, 5; no life that is not true to the state,
no life that outlives the state's — that is my motto.
REMARKS. — i. The Dat. is found, as a rule, only when these verbs
are used in a transferred sense. In a local sense the preposition should
be employed, although even classical Latin is not wholly consistent in
this matter. In poetry and later prose the Dat. is extended even to
the local signification. In early Latin the repetition of the preposition
is the rule.
So incuinbere in gladiuni, C., Inv., n. 51, 154, to fall upon one's sword.
2. The principal intrans. verbs with the Dat. in classical Latin are:
Accedere (to join, or, to le added ; otherwise usually preposition ad) ;
accumbere (once in Cic.) ; adesse (also with ad, in, and, in PLAUT. , apud) ;
adhaergscere (ad of local uses) ; arrldgre (once in Cic.) ; annuere (occa-
sionally with Ace.) ; assentlrl ; assidere ; antecedere (also with Ace.) :
antelre (also with Ace.) ; antecellere (with Ace. from LIVY on) ; con-
gruere (also with cum) ; consentire (also with cum) ; cSnstare ; convenfre (to
suit ; with cum, to agree ivith, especially in the phrase convenit mihi
cum aliquO, / agree with) ; illudere (also with Ace. and occasionally in
and Ace.) ; impends™ (with Ace. is archaic ; occasionally in) ; incSdere
(SALL., LIVY, etc.) ; incidere (twice in Cic. ; regularly in) ; incubare (but
incumbere regularly with in or ad) ; inesse (once iu Cic.) ; innaergre (occa-
DATIVE. 223
sionally ad or in with Abl.) ; inhiare (PLAUT. has Ace. only) ; innascl
(innatus) ; inservire ; Insinuate (once in Cic. ; usually in) ; insistere
(locally, in with Abl. ; occasionally Ace.) ; Instare ; invadere (once in
Cic. ; occasionally Ace. ; regularly in) ; intercSdere ; intercurrere ; inter-
esse (also with in and Abl.) ; intervenire ; obesse ; obrepere (usually in,
ad) ; obsistere ; obstare ; obstrepere ; obtingere ; obvenlre ; obversari ;
occurrere ; occursare ; praestare ; praesidere ; subesse ; subvenire ; sue-
cedere ; succumbere ; succrescere (once in Cic.) ; succurrere ; superesse.
3. The same variety of construction is found with transitive verbs, in
composition.
4. After the analogy of praestare, excellere, to excel, is also found
with the Dative.
5. Some trans, verbs, compounded with d6 and ex (rarely with ab),
take the Dat., but it properly comes under 345.
Caesar Deiotaro tetrarchian eripuit, eldemque detraxit Armeniam, Cf.
C., Div., ii. 37, 79 ; Caesar wrested from Dejotarus his tetrarchy, and
stripped from him Armenia.
Dative with Verbs of Giving and Putting.
348. A few verbs, chiefly of Giving and Putting, take a
Dative with an Accusative, or an Accusative with an Abla-
tive, according to the conception.
Praedam mflitibus donat, CAES., B.G., vn. n, 9; he presents the booty
to the soldiers. But Rubrium corona donasti, C., Verr. in. 80, 185; thou
didst present Rubrius with a crown.
Natura corpus animS circumdedit, SEN., E.M., 92, 13 ; Nature has put
a body around the mind. But Deus animum circumdedit corpore, Cf. C.,
Tim., 6, 20 ; God has surrounded the mind with a body.
REMARKS. — i. These are: aspergere, to besprinkle and to sprinkle on ;
circumdare, circumfimdere, to surround ; donare, to present ; impertire, to
endow and to give ; induere, to clothe and to put on ; ezuere, to strip of
and to strip off ; intercludere, to shut off ; miscere, to mix and to mix in.
2. In general, classical Latin here prefers the Dat. of the person,
but no fixed rule is followed.
Dative of Possessor.
349. Esse, to be, with the Dative, denotes an inner connec-
tion between its subject and the Dative, and is commonly
translated by the verb to have :
[Contr5versia] mini fuit cum avuncu!5 tuo, 0., Fin., in. 2, 6; / had a
lebate with your uncle. An nescls longas rSgibus esse manus 1 Ov., Her.,
224 DATIVE.
xvi. 166 ; or perhaps you do not knout that kings have long arms 9
Compare non habet, ut putamus, fortuna longas mantis, SEN., E.M., 82, 5.
REMARKS. — i. The predicate of esse, with the Dat., is translated in
the ordinary manner : Caesar amicus est mini, Caesar is a friend to me
(amlcus meus, MY friend, friend of MINE).
2. The Dat. is never simply equivalent to the Genitive. The Dat. is
the Person interested in the Possession, hence the Possession is em-
phatic ; the Gen. characterises the Possession by the Possessor, hence the
Possessor is emphatic. The Gen. is the permanent Possessor, or owner ;
the Dat. is the temporary Possessor. The one may include the other:
Latin! concSdunt Romam caput Latio esse, Cf. L., vm. 4, 5; the Latins
concede that Latium has its capital in ROME. (Latil: that LATIUM'S
capital is Rome.)
3. Possession of qualities is expressed by esse with in and the Abl.,
by inesse with Dat. or with in, or by some other turn :
Fuit mlrificus in Crasso pudor, C., Or., i. 26, 122 (346). Cimon habebat
satis gloquentiae, NEP., v. 2, 1 ; Cimon had eloquence enough.
SALLUST introduces the Dat. also for these relations.
4. Abesse and deesse, to be it-anting, to fail, take also the Dat. of
Possessor.
5. The Dat. of the person is regular with the phrases nomen (c5gn5-
men) est, inditum est, etc. Here the name is in the Nom. in apposition
to nomen, in the best usage. Rarely in CICERO, once in SALLUST, never
in CAESAR, more often in early and post-Ciceronian Latin, the name is
found in the Dat. ; either by attraction with the Dat. of the person
or on the analogy of the Double Dative. The Appositional Genitive
(361) is first cited from VELLEIUS. The undeclined Nom. after an
active verb appears first in OVID ; then in SUETONIUS.
Fons aquae dulcis, cui nomen Arethusa est, C., Verr.,iv. 53, 118 ; a
fountain of sweet water named Arethusa. Apollodorus, cui Pyragro cog-
nomen est, C., Verr., in. 31, 74 ; Apollodorus, surnamed Pyragrus (fire-
tongs). Nomen Arcturo est mihi, PL., Rud., 5 ; my name is Arcturus.
Tibi nomen insano posugre, H., S., n. 3, 47 ; they called you " cracked."
[Samnltes] Maleventum, cui nunc urbi Beneventum nomen est, perfugerunt,
L., ix. 27, 14 ; the Samnitesfled to Maleventum (Ilcome), a city which
now bears the name Beneventum ("Welcome). Aetas, cui fecimus ' aurea'
nomen, Ov., M., xv. 96 ; the age to which we have given the name ' Golden.'
Dative of Personal Interest.
In its widest sense this category includes the Dative with Transitive and Intransi-
tive Verbs, already treated, and the Ethical Dative, Dative of Reference, and Dative of
Agent, to follow. In its narrower sense it applies only to persons or their equivalents
who are essential to, but not necessarily participant in or affected by, the result, and
differs from'the Dative with Transitive and Intransitive Verbs, in that the connection
with the verb is much more remote.
DATIVE. 225
350. i. The person from whose point of view the action is observed,
or towards whom it is directed, may be put in the Dative. A conve-
nient but not exact translation is often the English Possessive (Datlvus
Energicus).
El libenter m6 ad pedes abieci, Cf. C., Alt., vrn. 9, 1 ; 1 gladly cast
myself at Ms feet. In conspectum vgnerat hostibus, HIRT. , vin. 27 ; he
had come into the sight of the enemy. Tuo vir5 oculi dolent, Cf. TEII.,
Ph., 1053; your husband's EYES ache; nearer, your husband has a
pain in his eyes (tul vin oculi, your HUSBAND'S eyes).
NOTE. — This Dative is not common in CICERO and is not cited for early Latin. But
it becomes common from LIVT on. With Kelative and Demonstrative pronouns it is
often used by Ciceronian and Augustan poets. In the case of many of the examples
we have parallel constructions with the Gen. of Possessor, which is the normal usage.
2. The Dative is used of the person in whose honour, or interest, or
advantage, or for whose pleasure, an action takes place, or the reverse
(Datlvus Commodl et Incommodl) :
Consurrgxisse omn6s [Lysandro] dlcuntur, C., Cat.M., 18, 63; all are
said to have risen up together in honour of Lysander. [De6] noatra
altaria fumant, V., EC., i. 43; our altars smoke in honour of the god.
SI quid peccat mihi peccat, TER., Ad., 115 ; if he commits a fault, it is
at my cost.
Ethical Dative.
351. The Ethical Dative indicates special interest in the
action. It may be called the Dative of Feeling, and its use
is confined to the personal pronouns (Datlvus EtMcus.)
Tu mibl Antonil exemplo istius audaciam dSfendis? C., Verr., m. 91,
213 ; do you defend me (to my face) by Antony's example that fellow's
audacity ? Ecce tib! Sebosus! C., Att., n. 15 ; here's your Sebosus !
" She's a civil modest wife, one (I tell you) that will not miss you
morning nor evening prayer." — SHAKESPEARE.
NOTES.— 1. This is essentially a colloquialism, common in comedy, especially with
ecce and em, frequent in CICERO'S letters, occasionally found elsewhere. In poetry,
notably Augustan, it is almost wholly absent ; but there are several cases in HORACE.
CICERO does not use em. LIVY does not use ecce.
2. Especially to be noted is sib! velle, to want, to mean : Quid tibi vis, InsSne,
C., Or., n. 67, 269 ; what do you want, madman? Quid volt sibl haec Sratiol
TER., Heaut., 615 ; what does all this holding forth mean ?
Dative of Reference.
352. This indicates the person in whose eyes the state-
ment of the predicate holds good (Datlvus ludicantis).
Ut mihi dSformis, sic tibi magnificus, TAC., H., xn. 37 ; to me a
monster, to yourself a prodigy of splendour. Quintia formosa "est multfc,
CAT. , 86, 1 ; Quintia is a beauty in the eyes of many.
15
226 DATIVE.
NOTE.— This Dative is characteristic of the Augustan poets, but it is also common
enough in CICERO and the prose authors.
353. Noteworthy is the use of this Dative in combination with par-
ticiples, which shows two varieties, one giving the local point of view,
the other the mental, both post-Ciceronian and rare. CAESAR gives
the first local usage, LIVY the first mental.
[H5c] est oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Eplro, CAES., B.C.,
in. 80 ; this is the first town of Thessaly to those coming (as you come)
from Epirus. VSrS aestimantl, L., XXXVTI. 58, 8 ; to one whose judg-
ment was true.
NOTES. — 1. This construction is probably drawn from the Greek, although VITRU-
vros shows several examples.
2. Certainly Greek is the Dat. of the person with volentl, Cupienti, invItS (est\
etc., which is found first in SAIXUST, once in Lrvr, and sporadically in TACITUS, and
later.
Dative of the Agent.
354. The Dative is used with Passive Verbs, in prose
chiefly with the Perfect Passive, to show the interest which
the agent takes in the result. That the person interested is
the agent is only an inference. (See 215.)
Mill! r6s t5ta provisa est, C., Verr., iv. 42, 91 ; I have had the whole
matter provided for. Cul non sunt audltae Demosthenis vigiliae? C.,
Tusc., iv. 19, 44 ; to whom are not Demosthenes' long watchings a famil-
iar hearsay ?
NOTES.— 1. Instances of this Dat. with the Tenses of Continuance are poetical, or
admit of a different explanation :
Barbaras hie ego sum qui non intellegor Sill, Ov.. Tr., v. io,37 ; I am a bar-
barian here because I can't make myself intelligible to any one.
Whenever an adj. or an equivalent is used, the Dat. PI. may be an Ablative :
Sic dissimillimis bestiolls communiter cibus quaeritur, C., N.D., n. 48, 123 ;
so, though these little creatures are so very unlike, their food is sought in common. Car-
mina quae scribuntur aquae potoribus, H., Ep., i. IQ, 3 ; poems which are written
when people are water-drinkers. CSna ministratur pueris tribus, H., S., i. 6, 116 ;
Dinner is served, (the waiters being) the waiters are (but) three.
2. This Dat. is rare in early Latin, rare, if ever, in CAESAR, not uncommon in CICERO.
But it is much liked by the poets and by some prose writers, notably by TACITUS.
355. The agent of the Gerund and Gerundive is put in
the Dative, at all periods.
Dfligentia praeeipue colenda est nobis, C., Or., n. 35, 148 ; carefulness
is to be cultivated by us first and foremost. Desperanda tibl salva con-
cordia socru, Juv., vi. 231 ; you must despair of harmony while Mother-
in-law's alive.
DATIVE. 227
REMARK. — To avoid ambiguity, especially when the verb itself takes
the Cat., the Abl. with ab (a) is employed for the sake of clearness :
Civibus a vobis consulendum, C., Imp., 2, 6 ; the interest of the citi-
zens must be consulted by you. Supplicatio ab eo decernenda non fait,
C., Ph., xiv. 4, 11.
Where there is no ambiguity there is no need of ab :
Linguae moderandum est mihi, PL., Cure., 486 ; I must put bounds to
my tongue.
NOTE.— Poets are free in their use of this Dative ; so with verbals in bilis ; as,
multisille bonis flebilis occidit, H., 0., i. 24, 9 ; null! exorabilis, SIL. ITAL., v. 131.
Dative of the Object For Which.
356. Certain verbs take the Dative of the Object For
Which (to what end), and often at the same time a Dative
of the Personal Object For Whom, or To Whom.
NeminI meus adventus labor! aut sumptui fuit, C., Verr., i. 6, 16 ; to
no one was my arrival a burden or an expense. Virtus sola neque datur
don6 neque accipitur, S., lug., 85, 38 ; virtue alone is neither given nor
taken as a present. HabSre quaestul rem publicam turpe est, C., Off., n.,
22, 77 ; it is base to have the state for one's exchequer.
REMARKS. — i. Noteworthy is the legal phrase culbon5? to whom is
it for an advantage 9 = who is advantaged ?
2. In the classical times the principal verbs in this construction are
esse, dare, ducere, habere, vertere, and a few others which occur less fre-
quently. Later Latin extends the usage to many other verbs, and
especially to Gerundive constructions. Dare is used principally in the
phrase dono dare.
3. The Double Dative is found principally with esse, but occasion-
ally with other verbs. Here there seems to have been a tendency,
mainly post-Ciceronian, to use the predicative Nom. instead of the
Dative. Interesting sometimes is the shift in usage ; thus, CICERO says
est turpitude, NEPOS, fuit turpitudini.
NOTES.— 1. In the same category, but with the idea of finality more clearly indi-
cated, are the agricultural usages, alimento serere, conditui legere ; the medical,
remedio adhibere ; the military terms, praesidio, auxilio, mittere, esse, etc.
2. With LIVY we notice the great extension of this Dat. with verbs of seeking, choos-
ing, etc., where classical Latin would prefer some other construction. So locum Insi-
dils (insidiarum is classical) circumspectare Poenus coepit, L., xxi. 53, 11. TACI-
TUS goes furthest in such usages. CAESAR, however, shows a few instances (-B. G., i.
30,8).
3. The Final Dative with intrtos. verbs is military and rare. So receptul canere,
to sound a retreat, is found first in CABS., B. Cr., vn. 47. SALLUST shows a few exam-
ples. The Dat., with similar sub8tnntives, is an extension, and is very rare. CICERO,
PA., xin. 7, 15, says receptul signum.
228 DATIVE.
4. The origin of this usage may have been mercantile (Key). In English we treat
Profit and Loss as persons : Quern fors dierum cumque dabit Iucr6 appone, H., O.,
i. 9, 14 ; " Every day that Fate shall give, set down to Profit.'1'1
On the Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive in a similar sense, see 429.
Dative with Derivative Substantives.
357. A few derivative substantives take the Dative of their
primitives :
lustitia est obtemperatio iSgibus, C., Leg., i. 15, 42 ; justice is obedi-
ence to the laws.
NOTE.— We find a few examples in PLAUTCTS, several in CICEEO, and only sporadi-
cally elsewhere. Usually the verbal force is very prominent in the substantives ; as,
insidias consul! inaturare, 8., U., 32, 2.
Local Dative. •
358. The Dative is used in poetry to denote the place
whither.
Karthagini iam non ego rmntios mittam superbos, H., 0., iv. 4, 69 ;
to Carthage no more shall I send haughty tidings. Iam satis terris nivis
atque dirae grandinis mlsit pater, H., 0., i. 2, 1 ; full, full enough of snow
and dire hail the Sire hath sent the Land.
NOTES.— 1. This construction begins with Accrtrs, and is not uncommon in the
Augustan poets. No examples are cited from PLACTUS or TERENCE, hence the infer-
ence is fair that it was not a colloquialism. As a poetical construction it seems to have
sprung from personification.
2. Occasionally the substantive is also thus construed ; as in the facilis descgnsua
Averno of VERGIL (A., vi. 126).
The extreme is reached when the Dative follows Ire and the like :
It caelo clamorque virum clangorque tubarum, V., A., xi. 192 ; mounts to
Sigh Heaven warriors' shout and trumpets'1 blare.
3. Tendere mantis has a few times, even in CICERO and CAESAR, the Dat. of the
person, which is sometimes referred to this head. But the usual construction is ad.
Matres familiae Roinanis d6 muro mantis tendebant, CAES., B. G., vn. 48.
• Dative with Adjectives.
359. Adjectives of Likeness, Fitness, Friendliness, Near-
ness, and the like, with their opposites, take the Dative :
Canis similis Iup5 est, C., N.D., 1. 35, 97 ; the dog is like unto the wolf.
Castris idSneus locus, CAES., E.G., vi. 10, 2 ; a place suitable for a camp.
Utile est re! publicae nobiles homines esse dlgnos maioribus sols, C., Sest.,
9, 21 ; it is to the advantage of the state that men of rank should be
worthy of their ancestors. Vir mih! amicissimus, Q. Fabricius, C.. Sest.,
35, 75 ; my very great friend, Q. Fabricius. Proxumus sum egomet mihi,
TER., And., 636 ; myself am nearest to me. Omni aetatl mors est com-
DATIVE. 229
munis, Of. C., Cat.M., 19, 68 ; death is common to every time of life.
(Testis) id dlcit quod ill! causae maxims eat aliSnum, C., Caec., g, 24 ; the
witness says what is especially damaging to that case (side).
REMARKS. — i. Many adjectives which belong to this class are used
also as substantives, and as such are construed with the Genitive :
amicus, friend ; affinis, connection ; aequalis, contemporary ; aliSnus
(rare), foreign, strange ; cognatus, kinsman ; communis, common ; con-
trarius, opposite ; par, match ; proprius, peculiaris, own, peculiar ; similis,
like (" we ne'er shall look upon his like again "), especially of gods and
men, and regularly with personal pronouns, and in early Latin ; sacer,
set apart, sacred ; superstes (rare), survivor. Comparatives have regu-
larly the Dative ; Superlatives vary.
[Hie], cuius pauc5s pares haec dvitas tulit, C. , Pis. , 4, 8 ; (he vvas) a man
few of whose peers the state hath borne. Utinam t5 non solum vitae, sed
etiam dlgnitatis nieae superstitem rellquissem, C., Q.F., i. 3, 1 ; would
that I had left thee survivor not only of my life but also of my position.
2. The object toward which is expressed by the Ace. with in, erga,
adversus :
Manlius (fait) sevSrus in filium, C., Off., in. 31, 112 ; Manlius was severe
toward his son. Me" esse scit sSsS erga benivolum, PL., Capt., 350 ; he
knows that I am kindly disposed toward him. Vir adversus merita
Caesaris ingratissimus, Cf. VELL., n. 69, 1 ; a man most ungrateful tow-
ards Caesar's services (to him).
3. The object for which may be expressed by the Ace. with ad, to :
HomS ad nullam rem utilis, C., Off., in. 6, 29 ; a good-for-nothing
fellow.
This is the more common construction with adjectives of Fitness.
NOTES.— 1. Propior, nearer, proximus, next, are also construed (like prope, near)
occasionally with the Ace. (principally by CAESAB, SALLUST, LIVT), the adverbial
forms also with the Abl. with ab, off:
Crassus proximus mare Qceanum hiemarat, CAES., B. G., in. 7, 2 ; Crassus had
wintered next the ocean. Id propius fidem est, L., 11.41, 11 ; that is nearer belief,
i.e., more likely.
2. Ali6nus, foreign, strange, is also construed with the Abl., with or without
ab (a) ; so commonly absonus.
Homo sum, human! nil a mg alienura put5, TEB., Heaut., 77 ; lam a man,
and nothing that pertains to man do I consider foreign to me.
3. lunctus, coniuuctus, joined, are also construed frequently with cum. and the
Abl. ; sometimes with the Abl. only : improbitas scelere iuncta, C., Or., n. 58, 237.
4. Similis is said to be used with the Gen. when the likeness is general and com-
prehensive ; with the Dat. when it is conditional or partial ; hence, in classical prose,
always vSrl simile, LIVT being the first to say vfiro simile.
5. Adversus, opponent, seems to be construed with the Gen. once in SALLUST (C.,
52, 7) and once in QUINTILIAN (xn. i,2). Invidus, envious, is cited with the Gen.
once in CICERO (Flac., i, 2), then not till late Latin ; with the Dat. it is poetical ; other-
wise the possessive pronoun is used, as till invicli (C., Fam., i. 4, 2). Pronus,
inclined, with the Dat., occurs in SALLUST (lug., 114,2), then not till TACITUS ; the
1 construction is ad. Intentus, intent upon, has Abl. in SALLUST (C., a, 9, etc.) ;
2 3O GENITIVE.
otherwise Dat., or ad (in) with Ace. Notice the use of aversus with Dat. in TAC.,
Ann., i. 66, 2 ; some other examples are doubtful.
6. In poetry, idem, (he same, is often construed after Greek analogy, with the Dative.
Invitum qul servat idem facit occldentl, H.. A.P, 467 ; he who saves a manCs
life) against his will does the same thing as one who kills him (as if he had killed him).
1. Adverbs of similar meaning sometimes take the Dative : Congruenter naturae
convenienterque vivere, C., Fin., m. 7, 26.
II. Internal Change.
Genitive.
360. i. The Genitive Case is the Case of the Complement,
and is akin to the Adjective, with which it is often parallel.
It is the substantive form of the Specific Characteristic.
The chief English representatives of the Genitive are :
(a) The Possessive case : Domus rggis, the king's palace.
(b) The Objective case with of : Domus rggis, the palace of the king.
(c) Substantives used as adjectives or in composition : Arbor abietis,
fir-tree.
REMARKS. — i. Other prepositions than of are not unfrequently used,
especially with the Objective Genitive. (363, R. i.)
Patriae quis exsul s§ quoque fiigit ? H., 0., n. 16, 19 ; what exile FROM
his country ever fled himself as well ? Boiorum triumph! spem collegae
reliquit, L., xxxin. 37, 10 ; he left the hope of a triumph OVER the Bo it
to his colleague.
Via mortis may be considered the way (mode) of death or the death-
path, instead of via ad mortem (L., XLIV. 4, 14).
2. An abstract substantive with the Gen. is often to be translated
as an attribute :
Verni temporis suavitas, C., Cat.M., 19, 70 ; the sweet spring-time.
Fontium gelidae perennitatgs, C., N.D., n. 39, 98 ; cool springs that never
fail. Compare S., C., 8, 3.
And, on the other hand, the predicative attribute is often to be
translated as an abstract substantive with of :
Ante Bomam conditam, before the founding of Rome. (325, R. 3.)
Notice also hie metus, this fear = fear of this, and kindred expres-
sions : Quam similitudinem = cuius rel similitudinem, C., N.D.,u. 10, 27.
2. The Genitive is employed :
I. and II. Chiefly as the complement of Substantives and
Adjectives.
III. Occasionally as the complement of Verbs.
NOTE. — As the Accusative forms a complex with the verb, so the Genitive forms a
complex with the Substantive or equivalent. No logical distribution can be wholly
satisfactory, and the following arrangement has regard to convenience.
GENITIVE. 231
I. GENITIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVES.
Adnominal Genitive.
Appositive Genitive, or Genitive of Specification.
361. The Genitive is sometimes used to specify the con-
tents of generic words instead of Apposition in the same
case ; there are two varieties :
1. Appositional Genitive. — Genitive after such words as, v5x, expres-
sion ; iiomen, name, noun ; verbum, word, verb ; r6s, thing, etc.
Nomen amicitiae, C., Fin., n. 24, 78 ; the name friendship.
2. Epexegetical Genitive. — Genitive after such words as genus, class ;
vitium, vice ; culpa, fault, etc.
[VirtutSs] continentiae, gravitatis, iustitiae, fidei, C., Mur., 10, 23 ; the
virtues of self-control, earnestness, justice, honour.
NOTES — -1. The former variety is very rare in CICERO, the latter much more com-
mon. A special variety is the use of the Gen. after such words as urbs, oppidum,
flumen, etc. This is not found in PLAUTUS and TERENCE, occurs perhaps but once
in CICERO, and seems to be confined to a few cases in poetry and later prose. Often
personification is at work ; thus, in fons Timavi (V., A., i. 244), Timavus is a river
god, and fSns is not equal to Timavus.
2. Examples like arbor abietis (L., xxiv. 3, 4), fir-tree ; arbor flcl (Of. C., Flac.,
17, 41), fig-tree, etc., occur only here and there.
3. Colloquial, and probably belonging here, are: scelus virl (PL., M. G., 1434), a
scoundrel of a man ; flagitium hominis (PL., Asin., 473), a scamp of a fellow, and
the like. Quaedam p6st6s hominum, C., Fam., v. 8, 2 ; certain pestilent fellows.
Possessive Genitive, or Genitive of Property.
362. The Possessive Genitive is the substantive form of an
adjective attribute with which it is often parallel ; it is used
only of the Third Person.
Domus rggis = domus rggia, the palace of the king, the king's palace =
the royal palace.
REMARKS. — i. The Possession in the First and Second Person (and
in the Reflexive) is indicated by the Possessive Pronouns (until after
LIVY): amicus meus, a friend of mine ; gladius tuus, a sword of thine.
But when omnium is added, vestrum and nostrum are used ; arls et focis
omnium nostrum inimlcus, C., Ph., xi. 4, 10. Sometimes the adjective
form is preferred also in the Third Person : canis aliSnus, a strange dog,
another man's dog ; fllius erflis, master's son.
2. The attention of the student is called to the variety of forms
which possession may take. Statua Myronis, Myron's statue, may mean:
i. A statue which Myron owns; 2. Which Myron has made; 3. Which
represents Myron.
3. Sometimes the governing word is omitted, where it can be easily
232 GENITIVE.
supplied, so especially aedes or templum, after ad, and less often after
other prepositions : Pecunia utinam ad Opis mangret, C., Ph., i. 7, 17 ;
would that the money were still at Ops's (temple).
NOTES.— 1. The Family Genitive, as Hasdrubal Gisgonis (L., xxvm., 12, 13),
Gisgo's Hafdrubal, Hasdrubal, Gisgo's son (as it were, Hasdrubal £>' Gisgo), Hectoris
Andromache (V., .4., 111.319), Hectares (wife) Andromache, is found twice only in
CICEKO, otherwise it is poetical and post-Ciceronian. Servos, however, is regularly
omitted ; Flaccus Claudi, Flaccw, Claudius* slave.
2. The Chorographic (geographic) Genitive is rare and post-Ciceronian : R6x
Chalcidem Euboeae vSnit, L., xxvn. 30, 7; the king came to Chalcls of (in) Euboea.
The Chorographic Genitive is not found with persons. Here an adjective or a prep-
ositional phrase is necessary : Thales MilSsius, or ex Mileto, Tholes oj Miletus.
Active and Passive Genitive.
363. "When the substantive on which the Genitive depends
contains the idea of an action (nomen actionis), the possession
may be active or passive. Hence the division into
1. The Active or Subjective Genitive : amor Del, the love
of God, the love which God feels (God loves) ; patriae beneficia,
the benefits of (conferred by} one's country (376, R. 2).
2. Passive or Objective Genitive : amor Dei, love of God,
love toward God (God is loved).
REMARKS. — i. The English form in o/is used either actively or pas-
sively : the love of women. Hence, to avoid ambiguity, other preposi-
tions than of are often substituted for the Passive Genitive, such as for,
toward, and the like. So, also, sometimes in Latin, especially in LIVY,
and later Historians generally :
Voluntas Serviln erga Caesarem, Cf. C., Q.F., in. i. 6, 26 ; the good-
will of Servilius toward Caesar. Odium in bonds inveteratum, C., Vat.,
3, 6 ; deep-seated hate toward the conservatives,
2. Both Genitives may be connected with the same substantive :
Veteres Helvgtiorum iniuriae popull BomanI, Cf. CAES., B.G., i. 30, 2 ;
the ancient injuries of the Roman people by the Helvetians.
NOTE.— The use of the Genitive with substantives whose corresponding verbs take
'other cases than the Accusative, gradually increases in Latin, beginning with the
earliest times, but it is not very common in the classical language.
364. The Subjective Genitive, like the Possessive, is used
only of the Third Person. In the First and Second Persons
the possessive pronoun is used, thus showing the close rela-
tionship of Agent and Possessor.
Amor meus, my love (the love which I feel). Desiderium tnum, your
longing (the longing which you feel).
GENITIVE. 233
Additional attributives are put in the Genitive (321, R. 2):
luravi hanc urbem mea unius opera salvam esse, C., Pi's., 3, 6 ; I swore
that this city owed its salvation to my exertions alone.
REMARK. — Nostrum and vestrum are used as Partitive Genitives:
Magna pars nostrum, a great part of us ; uterque vestrum, either (both)
of you.
Nostrl melior pars means the better part of our being, our better part.
With omnium, the forms nostrum and vestrum must be used (362, R. i).
NOTES.— 1. Occasionally, however, in Latin, as in English, the Gen. is used instead
of the possessive pronoun; so CICERO 8ays splendor vestrum (Alt., VH. 13 a, 3), and
consensus vestrum (Ph., v. i, 2), and one or two others ; but other examples are very
rare until after TACITUS, when the Singular forms, after the example of OVID (Jf.,i.
30), become not uncommon. See 304, 3, N. 1. " For the life of me " = " for my life."
2. On the other hand the Genitives of the personal pronouns are used regularly as
the Objective Genitive :
Amor mel, love to me. DSslderium tul, longing for th.ee. Memoria nostrl,
memory of us (our memory).
Occasionally the possessive pronoun is used even here ; see 304, 2, N.2, and compare
"The deep damnation of his taking off."
Genitive of Quality.
365. The Genitive of Quality must always have an adjec-
tive or its equivalent.
Vir magnae auctoritatis, CAES., B.G., v. 35, 6; a man of great influ-
ence. Homo nibili (= nullius pretii), PL., B., 1188 ; a fellow of no ac-
count. Trldul via, CAES., B. G., I. 38, 1; a three days' journey. N5n
multi cibl hospitem accipies, multi ioci, C., Fam., ix. 26, 4; you will
receive a guest who is a small eater but a great joker.
REMARKS. — i. The Genitive of Quality, like the adjective, is not
used with a proper name. Exceptions are very rare in classical Latin
(CAES., B. G., v. 35, 6, Quintus LQcanius, giusdem ordinis). But later they
are more common.
2. The Genitive of Quality is less common than the Ablative, being
used chiefly of the essentials. The Genitive always of Number, Meas-
ure, Time, Space ; the Ablative always of externals, so of parts of the
body. Often the use seems indifferent. (400.)
NOTE.— The omission of the adjective is not found before APULEIUS, in whom,
as in English, a man of influence may be for a man of great influence.
Genitive as a Predicate.
366. The Genitives of Possession and Quality may be used
as Predicates.
Hie versus Flauti n5n est, hlc est, C., Fam., ix. 16, 4; this verse is not
234 GENITIVE.
by Plautus, this ?'.? . Omnia quae mulieris fugrunt, virl f lunt d5tis nomine,
C., Top., iv. 23; everything that ivas the woman's becomes the husband's
under the title of dowry. Virtus tantarum virium est ut se ipsa tueatur, C. ,
Tusc., v. i,2; virtue is of such strength as to be her own jirofector.
REMARKS. — i. The Possession appears in a variety of forms, and
takes a variety of translations :
Huius ero vivus, mortuus huius ero, PROP., u. 15, 35; hers I shall be,
living; dead, hers I shall be. Nolae senatus BSmanorum, plebs Hanni-
balis erat, L., xxm. 39, 7; at Nola the senate was (on the side) of the
Romans, the common folk (on) Hannibal's. Damnatio est iudicum, poena
iSgis, C., Sull., 22, 63; condemning is the judges' (business), punishment
the law's. Est animi ingenul cui multum debeas eldem plurimum velle
debere, C. , Fam. , n. 6, 2 ; it shows the feeling of a gentleman to be will-
ing to owe very much to him to whom you already owe much. Pan-
peris est numerare pecus, Ov., M., xm. 823 ; 'tis only the poor man that
counts his flock ('tis the mark of a poor man to count the flock).
Observe the special variety, Genitlvus Auctoris : Is [HerculSs] dicg-
batur esse Myronis, C. , Verr., iv. 3, 5 ; that (statue of) Hercules was said
to be Myron's (work), by Myron.
So also with facere, to make (cause to be), which is common in LIVY
especially :
Romanae dicionis facere, L., xxi. 60, 3 ; to bring under the Roman
sway. Summum imperium in orbe terrarum Macedonian fecerant, L., XLV.
7,3; the paramount authority of the ivorld they had brought (into the
hands) of the Macedonians.
2. For the personal representative of a quality, the quality itself may
be used sometimes with but little difference, as : stultitiae est, it is the
part of folly ; stultl est, it is the part of a fool. So, too, stultum est,
it is foolish. But when the adj. is of the Third Declension, the neuter
should not be used, except in combination with an adj. of the Second.
Tempori cedere semper sapientis est habitum, C., Fam., iv. 9, 2 ; to yield
to the pressure of the times has always been held wise. Pigrum et iners
videtur sudore adquirere quod possls sanguine parare, TAC., G., 14, 17 ; it
is thought slow and spiritless to acquire by sweat what you can get by
blood.
Some combinations become phraseological, as : consuetudinis, moris
est (the latter post-classical), it is the custom.
3. The same methods of translation apply to the Possessive Pro-
noun in the Predicate ("Vengeance is mine") : meum est, it is my
property, business, way.
Non est mentlri meum, TER., Ileaut., 549 ; lying is not my way (I do
not lie). His tantis in rebus est tuum vidSre, quid agatur, C., Mur., 38,
83 ; in this important crisis it is your business to see what is to be done.
GENITIVE. 235
Partitive Genitive.
367. The Partitive Genitive stands for the Whole to which
a Part belongs. It is therefore but an extension of the Pos-
sessive Genitive. It may be used with any word that involves
partition, and has the following varieties (368-372) :
368. The Partitive Genitive is used with substantives of
Quantity, Number, Weight.
Maximus vini numerus fuit, permagnum pondus argent!, C., Ph., n. 27,
66 ; there was a, large amount of wine, an enormous mass of silver. In
iugero Leoutlnl agrl medimnum triticl seritur, 0. Verr., in. 47, 112 ; on a
juger of the Leontine territory a medimnus of wheat is sown. Campano-
rum alam, quingentos fere" equites excedere acie" iubet, L., x. 29, 2 ; he or-
ders a squadron of Campanians, about 500 horsemen, to leave the line.
REMARK. — This is sometimes called the Oenitlvus Generis, Whether
the conception be partitive or not, depends on circumstances.
Medimnus triticl, a medimnus of wheat, may be a medimnus of
WHEAT (Oenitlvus Generis} or a MEDIMNUS of wheat (Partitive).
NOTE. — The reversed construction is occasionally found. Sex di6s ad earn, rem
confi ciendam spatii postulant, CAES., B. C., i. 3, 6, instead of spatium sex dierum.
369. The Partitive Genitive is used with the Neuter Sing-
ular of the following and kindred words, but only in the
Nominative or Accusative.
tantum, so much,
multum, much,
paulum, little,
satis, enough,
hoc, this,
quantum, as (how much),
plus, more,
minus, less,
parum, too little,
id, illud, istud, that,
aliquantum, somewhat,
plurimum, most,
minimum, least,
nihil, nothing,
idem, the same,
quod and quid, which and ivhat ? with their compounds.
Quod in rebus honestis operae ciiraeque ponetur, id iure laudabitur, CM
Off., i. 6, 19 ; what (of) effort and pains shall be bestowed on reputable
deeds, will receive a just recompense of praise. Is locus ab omnl turba id
temporis (336, N. 2) vacuus [erat], C., Fin., v. i, 1 ; that place was at that
(point of) time free from anything like a crowd. Satis eloquentiae,
sapientiae parum, S., C., 5, 4 ; enough (of) eloquence, of wisdom too little.
REMARKS. — i. Neuter adjectives of the Second Declension can be
treated as substantives in the Gen. ; not so adjectives of the Third,
except in _ combination with adjectives of the Second, but here usually
the Second Declension adjective is attracted : aliquid bonum, or bonl,
something good ; aliquid memorabile, something memorable ; aliquid bonl
236 GENITIVE.
et memorabilia, something good and memorable (better aliquid bontun ct
memorabile).
Quid habet ista res aut laetabile aut gloriosum? C., Tusc., i. 21, 49
(204, x. 3).
2. A familiar phrase is : Nihil reliqul facere. i. To leave nothing
(not a thing). 2. (Occasionally), to leave nothing undone.
NOTES. — 1. The conception is often not so much partitive as characteristic. So
Quodcumque hoc regnl, V., A., i. 78 ; this realm, what (little) there is of it (what little
realm I have). Perhaps, too, such combinations as flagitium hominis may be classed
under this head. See 361, N. 3.
2. The partitive construction, with a preposition, is not found iu CICEISO or CAESAR,
but begins with SALLUST :
Ad id loci, S., C., 45, 3 ; ad id locorum, S., lug., 63, 6.
370. The Partitive Genitive is used with numerals both
general and special.
Special :
Centum militum, a hundred (of the) soldiers, a hundred (of) soldiers.
(Centum milites, a, the hundred soldiers.)
Qulntus regum, the fifth (of the) Tcing(s).
(Qulntus r6x, the fifth king.)
General :
Multi militum, many of the soldiers, many soldiers.
(Multl milites, many soldiers.)
REMARKS. — i. The English language commonly omits the partition,
unless it is especially emphatic :
Multl clvium adsunt, many CITIZENS are present. Multl clv§s adsunt,
MANY are the citizens present.
2. When all are embraced, there is no partition in Latin :
(N5s) trecentl coniuravimus, L., n. 12, 15 ; three hundred of us have
bound ourselves by an oath. Volnera quae circum plurima muros accepit
patrios, Y., A., n. 277; wounds which he received in great numbers before
his country's walls.
QuI omnes, all of whom. Quot estis ? how many are (there of) you ?
So always quot, tot, totidem.
Here the English language familiarly employs the partition. Ex-
ceptions are very rare.
3. On mille and mllia, see 293. On prepositions with numerals, see
372, R. 2.
371. The Partitive Genitive is used with Pronouns.
II militum, those (of the) soldiers. II milites, those soldiers.
mi GraecSrum, those (of the) Greeks.
Fldenatium qul supersunt. ad urbem Fidenas tendunt, L. , iv. 33, 10 ; th«
sumiving Fidenates take their way to the city of Fidenae.
GENITIVE. 237
REMARKS. — i. ITterque, either (both), is commonly used as an adjec-
tive with substantives : uterque consul, either consul = both consuls; as
a substantive with pronouns, unless a substantive is also used : uterque
horum, both of these ; but uterque ille dux. So, too, with relatives in
the neuter, and with Plural forms of uterque, concord is the rule. Com-
pare uterque nostrum, C., Sull., 4, 13, with utrlque nos, C., Fam., xi. 20,
3. See 292.
2. On the use of prepositions instead of the Genitive, see 372, B. 2.
NOTE.— The use of the relative with the Genitive is characteristic of LIVY.
372. The Partitive Genitive is used with Comparatives and
Superlatives :
Prior horum in proeliS cecidit, NEP., xxi. i, 2 ; the former of these fell
in an engagement. Indus est omnium fluminum maximus, C., N.D., n.
52, 130 (211, R. 2).
REMARKS. — i. When there are only two, the comparative exhausts
the degrees of comparison (300).
2. Instead of the Partitive Genitive with Numerals, Pronouns, Com-
paratives, and Superlatives, the Abl. may be employed with ex, out of,
dS, from (especially with proper names and singulars), in, among (rare),
or the Ace. with inter, among, apud : Gallus provocat unum ex Romanls,
the Gaul challenges one of the Romans ; Onus dS multis, one of the many
(the masses) ; Croesus inter rggSs opulentissimus, Croesus, wealthiest of
kings. With unus, ex or d6 is the more common construction, except
that when unus is first in a series, the Gen. is common.
3. On the concord of the Superlative see 211, R. 2.
NOTES. — 1. The Partitive Genitive with positives is occasional in poetry ; in prose
it begins with LIVY and becomes more common later.
Sequimur tS, sancte deorum, V., A., iv. 576 ; we follow thee, holy deity. Canum
dggenerSs (caudam) sub alvom flectunt, PLIN.,JV"./T.,XI., 50, 265; currish dogs
curl the tail up under the belly.
2. Substantival neuters, with no idea of quantity, were rarely followed by the Gen.
in early Latin. CICERO shows a few cases of Plurals of superlatives, and one case of a
Plural of a comparative in this construction : in interiors aedium Sullae {Alt. iv.,
3, 3). CAESAR shows one case of a positive : in occultls Sc reconditis tempi! (B. (7.,
in. 105, 5). SALLUST shows the first case of the Singular : in praerupti mentis ex-
trgmo (Tug., 37, 4). Then the usage extends and becomes common, especially in TACI-
TUS. In the poets it begins with LUCRETIUS.
Ardua dum metuunt amittunt v6ra vial (29, N. 2), LUCE., i. 660 ; the while they
fear the steeper road, they miss the true.
So amara curarum, H., <9.,iv. 12, 19; bitter elements of cares, bitter cares; strata
viarum, V., A., i. 422 = stratae viae, the paved streets.
3. The Partitive Genitive is also used with Adverbs of Quantity, Place, Extent : ar-
morum adfatim, L., xxvn. 17, 7 ; abundance of arms ; ubi terrarum, gentium?
where in the world ? (Very late Latin, turn temporis, at that time.) The usage with
hue, eo, as hue, e5 arrogantiae prOcSssit, he got to this, that pitch of presumption,
is a colloquialism, which begins with SALLUST, but is not found in CICERO or CAESAR.
238 GENITIVE.
Notice especially the phrase : quod (or quoad) gius (facere) possum, as far as I can
do so: C., Fam., in. 2, 2 ; Att., xi. 12, 4 ; /«»., n., 6,20.
4. The Partitive Genitive with proper names is rare, and mostly confined to LIVT :
Consulum Sulpicius in dextro Poetelius in laevo cornu consistunt, L., ix. 27, 8.
5. The Partitive Genitive as a Predicate is Greekish : Figs nobilium tu quoque
fontium, II-, 0., in., 13, 13 ; tfwu too shalt count among the famous fountains.
Genitive with Prepositional Substantives.
373. Causa, gratia, ergo, and Instar are construed with the
Genitive.
[Sophistae] quaestiis causa philosophabantur, C., Ac., n. 23, 72 ; the pro.
fessors of wisdom dealt in philosophy for the sake of gain. Tu me amoris
magis quam honoris servavisti gratia, ENN., F., 287 (M.); thou didst save
me more for love's (sake) than (thou didst) for honour's sake. Virtutis
ergo, C., Opt. Gen., 7, 19; on account of valor. Instar montis equus, V.,
A., n. 15 ; a horse the bigness of a mountain. Plato mini unus Instar est
omnium, C., Br., 51, 191 ; Plato by himself is in my eyes worth them all.
REMARKS. — i. Causa and gratia, for the sake, commonly follow the
Gen. in classical Latin and also in the Jurists. In LIVY and later they
often precede. Ergo, on account, belongs especially to early Latin,
except in formulae and laws, and follows its Genitive. It is rare in the
poets. Instar is probably a fossilised Infinitive (Instare), meaning " the
equivalent," whether of size or value.
2. Except for special reasons causa takes the possessive pronoun in
agreement, rather than the personal pronoun in the Genitive ; more
rarely gratia :
Vestra relque publicae causa, C., Verr., v. 68, 173 ; for your sake and
that of the commonwealth. But in antithesis, multa quae nostrl causa
numquam facergmus, facimus causa amlcorum! C., Lad., 16, 57 (disputed).
II. GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.
374. Adjectives of Fulness, of Participation, and of Power,
of Knowledge and Ignorance, of Desire and Disgust, take
the Genitive.
Plenus rimarum, TER., Eun., 105 ; full of chinks ("a leaky vessel").
Particeps consilil, C., Sull., 4, 12 ; a sharer in the plan. Mentis compos,
C. , Ph., n. 38, 97; in possession of (one's) mind. Multarum renim peritus,
C., Font. , n, 25 ; versed in many things. Cupidus pecuniae, Cf. C.,
Verr., i. 3, 8 ; grasping after money. Fastldiosus Latinarum (litter arum),
C., Br., 70, 247 ; too dainty for Latin. Omnium rSrum inscius, C., Br.,
85, 292 ; a universal ignoramus. Cur n5n ut plenus vitae conviva recgdisl
LUCR., ill. 938 (273). Sitque memor nostri necne, referte mini, Ov., Tr., IV.
GEHITIVE. 239
3, 10 (204, N. 7). Conscia mens rectl Famae mendacia risit, Ov., F., IV. 311
(330, R.). Agricolam laudat iuris legumque perltus, H., S., i. i, 9; the hus-
bandman('s lot) is praised by the counsel learned in the law. Omnes im-
memorem beneficii oderunt, C., Off., n. 18, 63 ; all hate a man who has no
memory for kindness. (Bestiae) sunt rationis et orationis experte"s, C., Off.,
i. 16, 50 ; beasts are devoid of reason and speech (lack discourse of reason).
Omnia plena consiliorum, inania verb5rum videmus, C., Or., i. 9, 37; we see
a world that is full of wise measures, void of eloquence. Gallia frugum
fertilis fuit, L., v. 34, 2; Gaul was productive of grain.
NOTES.— 1. Of adjectives of Fulness, with the Gen., only plgnus, replStus, inops,
and inanis are classical and common ; single instances are found of llberalis, pro-
fusus, in SALLUST (C., 7, 6 ; 5, 4), and igiunus occurs once in CICERO. PLAUTUS also
uses onustus and prodigus. Poets and later prose writers are free. Plenus occurs
very rarely with the Abl. in CICERO and CAESAR, more often in LIVT. Refertus is
used by CICERO usually with the Abl. of the Thing and with the Gen. of the
Person.
2. Participation : Classical are particeps, expers, censors, with some adjectives
expressing guilt, as manif estus (archaic), affinis, reus. Of these particeps takes
also the Dat. in post-classical Latin, and expers has also the Abl. (not classical) from
PLAUTUS on. (See 8., C., 33, 1.) Affinis has the Dat. in LIVY, in local sense also in
CICERO ; reus takes Abl. or dS.
3. Power: Compos alone is classical, and is occasionally found with Abl. in SAL-
LUST, VERGIL, LIVY. PotSns is found in PLAUTUS, the poets, and post-classical prose ;
impos in PLAUTUS, and then not until SENECA.
4. Knmvledge and Ignorance : Classical are some eighteen. Of these peritus has
also Abl., and rarely ad ; insuetus takes also Dat. as well as d§ ; prudens has also
ad ; rudis has Abl. with in. more often than the Gen. in CICERO, but also ad. Ante-
classical Latin shows a few more adjectives.
5. Desire and Disgust : Classical are avidus, cupidus, fastldiosus, studiosus.
Of these avidus has also in with Ace. and with Abl. ; studiosus has Dat. in PLAUTUS
(M. Q., 801) ; single examples are cited with ad and in. Fastldiosus occurs but once
in CICERO (see above) ; see H., 0., in. i, 37.
6. In later Latin and in the poets almost all adjectives that denote an affection of the
mind take a Gen. of the Thing to which the affection refers, where model prose requires
the Abl. or a preposition: consilii ambiguus, TAC., H., iv. 21 ; doubtful of purpose.
Ingratus salutis, V., A., x. 665.
The analogy of these adjectives is followed by others, so that the Gen. becomes a
complement to the adjective, just as it is to the corresponding substantive.
Integer vitae, H., 0., i. 22, 1 ; spotless of life ; like integritas vltae. (Compare
fama et fortunis integer, S., H., n. 41, 5 D ; in fame and fortunes intact.)
7. The seat of the feeling is also put in the Gen., chiefly with animl and ingenil
(which were probably Locatives originally). Aeger animl, L., i. 58, 9 ; sick at heart,
heartsick. Audax ingenil, STAT., S., in. 2, 64 ; daring of disposition. The PI. is
animls.
8. The Gen. with adjectives involving Separation instead of the Abl. (390, 3) begins
with the Augustan poets ; though SALLUST shows nudus and vacuus (lug., 79, 6 ; 90,
1); liber laborum, H., A.P., 212.
9. Classical Latin uses certus with Gen. only in the phrase certiorem facere, to
inform, which has also d§ (always in CAESAR).
10. Dlgnus, worthy, and indlgnus, unworthy, with Gen. are poetical and rare.
11. On ali§nus, strange, see 359, N. 2. On aequalis, communis, conscius, con-
trarius, par, proprius, similis, superstes, and the like, see 359, R. i.
24O GENITIVE.
Genitive with Verbals.
375. Some Present Participles take the Genitive when they
lose their verbal nature ; and so occasionally do verbals in
-ax in poetry and later prose.
(Epamlnondas) erat adeo veritatis diligens ut ne ioco quidem mentiretur,
NEP. , xv. 3, 1 ; Epaminondas ieas so careful (such a lover) of the truth
as not to tell lies even in jest. Omnium consBnsii capax imperil nisi im-
perasset, TAC., H., i. 49 ; by general consent capable of empire, had
he not become emperor.
NOTES. — 1. The participle is transient ; the adjective permanent. The simple test
is the substitution of the relative and the verb : amans (participle), loving (who is
loving) ; amans (adjective), fond, (substantive), lover ; patiens (participle), bearing
(who is bearing) ; patiens (adjective), enduring, (substantive), a sufferer.
2. Ante-classical Latin shows only amans, cnpiSns, concupiens, fugitans,
gerens, persequens, sciSns, temper ans. CICERO carries the usage very far, and it is
characteristic of his style. CAESAB, on the other hand, has very few cases (B. C., i. 69, 3).
CICERO also shows the first case of a Gen. after a compared participle. Sumus
natura appetentissiml honestatis, C., Tusc.,u. 24,58. These participles can also
revert to the verbal constructions.
3. Of verbals with the Gen., PLAUTUS shows one example : mendax (Asin., 855) ;
CICERO perhaps one : rapax (Lael., 14, 50). The usage in later Latin and the poets is
confined at most to about one dozen verbals.
III. GENITIVE WITH VERBS.
Genitive with Verbs of Memory.
376. Verbs of Reminding, Remembering, and Forgetting,
take the Genitive.
T6 veteris amlcitiae coramonefecit, [C.] ad Her. , iv. 24, 33 ; he reminded
you of your old friendship. Est proprium stultitiae aliorum vitia cernere,
obllviscl suorum, C., Tusc., in. 30, 73; the fact is, it shoics a fool to have
keen eyes for the faults of others, to forget one's own. Ipse iubet mortis
tS meminisse dens, MART., n. 59; a god himself bids you remember death.
REMARKS. — i. Verbs of Reminding take more often the Abl. with
d8 (so regularly in CICERO), and the Ace. neut. of a pronoun or Nu-
meral adjective. TACITUS alone uses monere with the Gen. (Ann., i.
67,1).
Oro ut Terentiani moneatis de testaments, C., Aft., xi. 16, 5; I beg you
to put Terentia in mind of the will. Discipulos id unum moneo, QUINT.,
n. 9, 1 (333, i).
2. Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting also take the Ace., espe-
cially of Things ;
GENITIVE. 241
Haec olim meminisse iuvabit, V., A., i. 203 ; to remember these things
one day will give us pleasure. QuI sunt boni civSs, nisi qul patriae bene-
ficia memine'runt ? C., Plane., 33, 80 ; who are good citizens except those
who remember the benefits conferred by their country ? ObliviscI nihil
soles nisi iniurias, C., Lig., 12, 35 ; you are wont to forget nothing except
injuries.
Eecordor (literally = / bring to heart, to mind) is construed with the
Aec. of the Thing, except in three passages from CICERO ; d6 is found
with Persons.
Et vocem Anchlsae magni voltumque recorder, V., A., vm. 156 ; and I
recall (call to mind) the voice and countenance of Anchises the Great.
MeminI, I bear in mind, I (am old enough to) remember, takes the
Accusative :
[Antipatrum] tu probe meministl, C., Or., in. 50, 194 ; you remember
Antipater very well.
3. Venit mibl in mentem, it comes into (up to) my mind, may be con-
strued impersonally with the Gen., or personally with a subject ; the
latter by CICERO only when the subject is a neuter pronoun.
Venit mini Platonis in mentem, C., Fin., v. i, 2 ; Plato rises before
my mind's eye.
Genitive with Verbs of Emotion.
377. Misereor, I pity, takes the Genitive, and miseret, it
moves to pity, paenitet, it repents, piget, it irks, pudet, it
makes ashamed, taedet and pertaesum est, it tires, take the
Accusative of the Person Who Feels, and the Genitive of the
Exciting Cause.
MisereminI sociorum, C., Verr., i. 28, 72 ; pity your allies ! Suae quem-
que fortiinae paenitet, C., Fam., vi. i, 1 ; each man is discontented with
his lot. MS non solum piget stultitiae meae, sed etiam pudet, C., Dom.,
n, 29 ; / am not only fretted at my folly, but actually ashamed of it.
REMARKS. — i. Pudet is also used with the Gen. of the Person whose
Presence excites the shame :
Pudet deorum hominumque, L., in. 19, 7 ; it is a shame in the sight of
gods and men.
2. These Impersonals can also have a subject, chiefly a Demon-
strative or Relative pronoun : N5n tS haec pudent* TER., Ad., 754 ; do
not these things put you to the blush ?
3. Other constructions follow from general rules. So the Inf.
(422) and quod (542).
Non m6 vixisse paenitet, C., Cat.M., 23, 84 (540). Quintum paenitet
quod animum tuum offendit, Of. C., Aft., xi. 13, 2; Quintus is sorry that
he has wounded your feelings.
16
242 GENITIVE.
NOTES.— 1. With the same construction are found misereS (early Latin), miser§sc5
(poetical), dispudet (early Latin), distaedet (early Latin), vereor (mostly in early
Latin), and a few others.
2. Miserarl and commiserarl, to pity, commiserate, take Ace. until very late
Latin.
Genitive with Judicial Verbs.
The Genitive with Judicial Verbs belongs to the same category as the Genitive with
Verbs of Rating, both being extensions of the Genitive of Quality.
378. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Condemning, and
Acquitting take the Genitive of the Charge.
(MiltiadSs) acciisatus est proditi5nis, NEP., i. 7, 5 ; Miltiades was
accused of treason. [Fannius] C. Verrem Insimulat avaritiae, C., Verr.,
I. 49, 128 ; Fannius charges Oaius Verres with avarice. VideS non t6
absolutum esse improbitatis sed illos damnatos esse caedis, C., Verr., i. 28,
72; I see not that you are acquitted of dishonour, but that they are con-
victed of murder.
REMARKS. — i. Judicial Verbs include a number of expressions and
usages. So capl, tenSrl, dgprehendl, sS adstringere, se adligare, se obligate
(ante-classical), and others, mean to be found guilty ; increpare, increpi-
tare, urg5re, deferre, arguere, etc., mean charge.
So also kindred expressions : reum facere, (to make a party) to indict,
to bring an action against ; n5men dgferre d6, to bring an action
against ; sacrilegii comperttuu esse, to be found (guilty) of sacrilege.
2. For the Gen. of the Charge may be substituted nomine or crimine
with the Gen., or the Abl. with dS: nomine (srlmine) coniurationis
damnare, to find guilty of conspiracy ; accflsare dS vl, of violence (Gen.
vis rare) ; dS vengficiS, of poisoning ; dS rSbus repetundis, of extortion.
PSstulare always has dS in CICERO. We find sometimes in with Abl. ;
convictus in crimine, on the charge ; or, inter : inter sicarios damnatus est,
convicted of homicide (C., Cluent., 7, 21 ; Cf. Ph., n. 4, 8).
3. Verbs of Condemning and Acquitting take the Abl. as well as the
Gen. of the Charge and the Punishment, and always the Abl. of
the definite Fine ; the indefinite Fine, quantl, dupll, quadrupll, etc., is
in the Genitive.
Accusare capitis, or capite, to bring a capital charge. Damnare capitis,
or capite, to condemn to death. Damnarl decem mllibus, to be fined ten
thousand.
Multare, to mulct, is always construed with the Ablative : Multare
pecunia, to mulct in (of) money.
Manlius virtutem filii morte moltavit, QUINT., v. n, 7 ; Manlius pun-
ished the valour of his son with death.
4. Destination and Enforced Labor are expressed by ad or in, but all
examples are post-classical : damnarl ad bSstias, to be condemned (to be
GENITIVE. 243
thrown) to wild beasts ; ad (in) metalla, to the mines ; ad (in) opus pub-
licum, to hard labour. Votl damnarl, to be bound to fulfil a vow, is
Livian (except NEP., xx. 5, 3, where it has a different sense).
5. Verbs of Accusing may have also the Ace. of the Thing and the
Gen. of the Person : inertiam accusas adulgscentium, C., Or., i. 58, 246.
Genitive with Verbs of Rating and Buying.
379. Verbs of Eating and Buying are construed with the
Genitive of the general value or cost, and the Ablative of the
particular value or cost. (404.)
Verbs of Rating are : aestimare, exlstimare (rare), to value ; putare,
to reckon ; dUcere (rare in CICERO), to take ; habere, to hold ; pendere
(mostly in Comedy), to weigh ; facere, to make, put ; esse, to be (worth) ;
fieri, to be considered.
Verbs of Buying are : emere, to buy ; vSndere, to sell ; venire, to be
for sale ; stare and constare, to cost, to come to ; pr5stare, licSre, to be
exposed, left (for sale) ; conducere, to hire ; locare, to let.
380. i. Verbs of Eating take :
Magni, much, pluris, more, pluriml, maxiinl, most,
Parvl, little, minoris, less, minimi, least,
TantI, tantidem, so quantl (and compounds), nihili, naught,
much, how much,
Equivalents of nihili, nothing, are flood, a lock of wool, nauci, a trifle,
assis, a copper, pill (both in CATULLUS, mainly), and the like, and so also
huius, that (a snap of the finger), all usually with the negative.
Bum ne ob malefacta, peream; parvl exlstumo, PL., Capt.,682, ; so
long as it be not for misdeeds, let me die ; little, do I care. [Voluptatem]
virtus minimi facit, C., Fin., 11. 13, 42 ; virtue makes very little account
of the pleasure of the senses. [ludicSs] rem publicam flocci non faciunt,
Cf. C., Att., iv. 15, 4 ; the judges do not care a fig for the State. Non
habeo naucl Marsum augurem, C., Div., i. 58, 132 ; I do not value a
Marsian augur a bawbee.
REMARK. — Tanti is often used in the sense of operae pretium est = it
is worth while.
Est mini tanti huius invidiae tempestatem subire, C., Cat., n. 7, 15 ; it
is worth while (the cost), in my eyes, to bear this storm of odium.
NOTES.— 1. Aestim5 is found with the Abl. as well as with the Genitive. So
aestimare magno and magni, to value highly. CICERO prefers the Ablative.
2. Observe the phrases : bonl (aequi bonlque) facio (a colloquialism), bonl con-
su!5 (an old formula), I put up with, take in good part. Non pgnsi habire (ducere),
to consider not worth the while, is post- Augustan and rare.
244 GENITIVE.
2. Verbs of Buying take tantl, quantl, pluris, and minoris,
The rest are put in the Ablative.
Vend5 meum (frumentum) noa pluris quam ceterl, fortasse etiam minoris,
C., Off., in. 12, 51 ; I sell my corn not dearer than everybody else, per-
haps even cheaper. Magis ilia iuvant quae pluris emuntur, Juv., xi. 16 ;
things give more pleasure which are bought for more. Emit (Canius hor-
tSs) tantl quantl Pythius voluit, C., Off., in. 14, 59 ; Canius bought the
gardens at the price Pythius wanted.
Quanti cenas ? What do you give for your dinner ?
Quantl habitas ? What is the rent of your lodgings f
But:
ParvO fam6s eonstat, magno fastldium, SEN., E.M., 17, 4 ; hunger costs
little, daintiness much.
An instructive shift:
Emit! peril hercle: quantl? — Vlgintl minis, TER., Eun., 984 ; he
bought her ? I'm undone. For how much ? — Twenty minae.
REMARK. — Bene emere, to buy cheap ; bene vSndere, to sell dear ; male
emere, to buy dear ; male vgndere, to sell cheap. So, too, other adverbs :
melius, optime, peius, pessime.
Genitive with Interest and Refert.
381. Interest and Refert take a Genitive of the Person,
seldom of the Thing, concerned.
Interest omnium rSctS facere, C., Fin., n. 22, 72 ; it is to the interest
of all to do right. RSfert compositionis quae quibus anteponas, QUINT.,
ix. 4, 44 ; it is of importance for the arrangement of words, which you
put before which.
Instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, the
Ablative Singular feminine of the possessives is employed.
Mea interest, mea retert, I am concerned.
NOTES.— 1. Refert is commonly used absolutely, occasionally with mea, etc., sel-
dom with the Gen., in the classical language.
2. Instead of Apposition use the Eelative :
Vehementer intererat vestra, qui patrSs estis, liberos vestrSs hie potissi-
mum discere, PLIN., Ep., iv. 13, 4 ; it were vastly to the interest of you parents, that
your children, if possible, were taught at home.
3. The Nom. as a subject is rare, except in PLINY'S Natural History :
Usque adeo magni rgfert studium atque voluptas, LUCB., iv. 984.
Occasionally the Nom. of a neuter pronoun is found :
Quid (Ace.) tua id (Nom.) rgfert ? TER., Ph., 723 ; what business is that of yours?
4. Rgfert is the more ancient, and is employed by the poets (interest is excluded
from Dactylic poetry by its form) to the end of the classical period. Interest is
peculiar to prose, employed exclusively by CAESAR, and preferred by CICERO when a
complement is added.
GENITIVE. 245
5. No satisfactory explanation has been given of this construction. One view is
that mea refert was originally [ex] mea re fert Oike ex mea r§ est), it is to my ad-
vantage, and that the ex was lost. Interest having much the same force, but being
later in development, took the constructions of refert by false analogy. The Gen.
would be but parallel to the possessive.
382. i. The Degree of Concern is expressed by an Adverb,
Adverbial Accusative, or a Genitive of Value.
Id mea minume rgfert, TER., Ad., 88 1 ; that makes no difference at all
to me. Theodori nih.il interest, C., Tusc., I. 43, 102 ; It is no concern of
Theodorus. Magni interest mea una nos esse, C., Att., xm. 4 ; it is of
great importance to me that we be together.
2. The Object of Concern is commonly put in the Infini-
tive, Accusative and Infinitive, ut or ne with the Subjunc-
tive, or an Interrogative Sentence.
Quid Milonis intererat interfici Clodium ? C., Mil., 13, 34 ; what interest
had Milo in Clodius1 being killed ? [Caesar dlcere solgbat] nSn tarn sua
quamrei publicae interesseuti salvus esset, SUET., lul., 86 ; Caesar used to
say that it was not of so much importance to him(self) as to the State
that his life should be spared. Vestra interest ne imperatorem pessiml
faciant, TAC., H., i. 30 ; it is to your interest that the dregs of creation
do not make the emperor. Quid rgfert tales versus qua voce legantur 1
Juv., xi. 182 ; what matters it what voice such verses are recited
with ?
3. The Thing Involved is put in the Accusative with ad :
Magni ad houorein nostrum interest quam prlmum m@ ad urbem venire,
C., Fam., xvi. i, 1 ; it makes a great difference touching our honour that
I should come to the city as soon as possible.
Occasional Uses.
383. i- The Genitive is found occasionally with certain Verbs of
Fulness : in classical Latin principally implere, complere, egere, indiggre.
Plso multos codices implevit earum rgrum, C., Verr. i. 46, 119 ; Piso
filled many books full of those things. Virtus plurimae comment ationis
et exercitationis indiget, Cf. C., Fin., in. 15, 50 ; virtue stands in need
of much (very much) study and practice.
NOTES.— 1. Classical Latin shows in all cases the Abl. much more frequently than
the Gen., except hi the case of indigere, where CICERO prefers the Genitive. LIVT
likewise prefers the Gen. with implgre.
2. Ante-classical and poetic are explere (VERG.), abundare (Luc.), scatgre
(LUCK.), saturare (PLATJT.), obsaturare (TEB.), carere (TER.). CarBre and eg6re
have the Ace. occasionally in early Latin.
3. Other Grecisms are laborum decipitur, H., <?., n. 13, 38 (reading doubtful).
246 ABLATIVE.
Rfignavit populorum, H., 0., in. 30, 12. Also mlrari with Gen. in VEKGIL (A., xi.
126). Noteworthy is the occasional use of crSdere with Gen. in PLAUTDS ; so once
falll.
2. A Genitive of Separation, after the analogy of the Greek, is found
in a few cases in the poets.
Tit mg omnium iam labOrum levas, PL., Rud. 247 ; hoio you relieve me
at last of all my toils and troubles. Desine mollium tandem querellarum,
H., 0., ii. 9, 17 ; cease at last from womanish complainings.
3. The Genitive in Exclamations occurs in a very few instances in
the poets. CAT., ix. 5 ; PROP., iv. (v.) 7, 21 ; compare PL., Most., 912 ;
LUCAN, n. 45.
On the Genitive after comparatives, see 296, N. 2.
ABLATIVE.
384. The Ablative is the Adverbial, as the Genitive is the
Adjective case. It contains three elements :
A. Where? B. Whence? C. Wherewith?
In a literal sense, the Ablative is commonly used with prepositions ;
in a figurative sense, it is commonly used without prepositions.
A. The Ablative of the Place Where appears in a figurative sense as
the Ablative of the Time When.
B. The Ablative of the Place Whence appears as :
i. The Ablative of Origin. 2. The Ablative of Measure.
C. The Ablative of the Thing Wherewith appears in a figurative
sense, as :
i. The Ablative of Manner. 2. The Ablative of Quality. 3. The
Ablative of Means.
REMARK. — It is impossible to draw the line of demarcation with
absolute exactness. So the Ablative of Cause may be derived from any
of the three fundamental significations of the case, which is evidently
a composite one.
To these we add :
D. The Ablative of Cause. E. The Ablative Absolute.
I. The Literal Meanings of the Ablative.
A. ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHERE.
AblatTvus Localis.
385. The Ablative answers the question W here ? and takes
as a rule the preposition in.
In portfl navigo, TER., And., 480; Iam sailing IN harbour. P5ns in
HibSr5 prope effectus (erat), CAES., B.C.,i. 62, 3; the bridge OVER the
ABLATIVE. 247
Ebro ivas nearly finished. Histrio in scaena [est], PL. , Poen. , 20 ; the
actor is ON the stage. Haeret in equo senex, Cf. C., Dei., 10, 28 ; the old
man sticks TO his horse.
REMARKS.— i. Verbs of Placing and kindred significations take the
Abl. with in, to designate the result of the motion : classical are ponere,
to place, and compounds ; locare, collocare, to put ; statuere, constituere,
to set ; consldere, to settle ; defigere, to plant ; demergere, to plunge ;
imprimere, to press upon ; insculpere, to engrave (figurative) ; Inscribere,
to write upon ; incldere, to carve upon ; includere, to shut into.
Plato rationem in capite posuit, iram in pectore locavit, C., Tusc., i. 10,
20 ; Plato has put reason in the head, has placed anger in the breast.
(LucrStia) cultrum in corde dgfigit, L., i. 58, 11 ; Lucretia plants a knife
in (thrusts a knife down into) her heart. Philosophi in ils librls ipsls
quos scrlbunt dS contemnenda glSria sua n5mina inscribunt, C., Tusc.,i.
15, 34 ; philosophers write their own names on (the titles of) the very
books which they write about contempt of glory. (Foedus) in columna
aenea inclsum, C., Balb., 23, 53 ; a treaty cut upon a brazen column.
The same observation applies to sub :
Pone sub curru nimium propinqui soils in terra domibus negata, 11 ., 0.,
i. 22, 21 ; put (me) under the chariot of the ail-too neighboring sun, in a
land denied to dwellings.
2. Verbs of Hanging and Fastening take ex, ab, or dS.
Cul sp6s omnis pendet ex fortuna, hulc nihil potest esse certi, C., Par., n.
17 ; to him who has all his hopes suspended on fortune, nothing can be
certain.
3. Here and there in is often rendered by per : C. , Fam. , i. 7, 6, per
provincias, here and there in the provinces ; V., A., in. 236.
NOTES.— 1. In classical prose the use of the Abl. without in is confined to a few
words, mostly phraseological. So terra, on land ; marl, by sea ; usually in the phrase
terra marique (rarely in the reversed order), on land and sea. In terra is more
common otherwise than terra. Loco and locis, especially when used with adjectives,
usually omit in. The same is true of parte and partibus ; so regularly dextra
(parte), sinistra, laeva, etc., on the right, on the left. LIVT uses regi5 like locus.
The tendency, however, is observable as early as CICERO'S time to omit the in when
an adjective is employed, even in words other than those given above ; this tendency
becomes more marked in Lrvr and is very strong in later Latin. The poets are free.
Regard must always be had to 389.
2. The Ace. with in after verbs of Placing is very rare in classical prose. In early
Latin it is more common ; so with ponere, imponere, collocare. The examples with
Ace. in classical Latin are principally with compounds of ponere, as impSnere (usu-
ally), repOnere, expdnere. Collocare with in and Ace. in CAES., B. G., 1. 18, 7, is not
in a local sense. Sometimes the Dat. is found with imponere.
3. With a verb of Rest the motion antecedent to the rest is often emphasised by con-
struing the verb with in and the Ace. instead of with in and the Abl. This occurs
most often with esse and habgre, and seems to have been colloquial, as it is very rare
in classical prose.
Numero mjbj in mentem fuit dls advenientem gratias agere, PL., Am., 180.
248 ABLATIVE.
Adesse in senatum iussit, C., Ph.,v. 7, 19 (Of. hflc ades, come hither). Parcere
victis in animum habebat, L., xxxm. 10, 4.
386. Names of Towns in the Singular of the Third Declen-
sion, and in the Plural of all Declensions, take the Ablative
of Place Where without in.
Ut Roinae consules sic Carthagine quotannis bin! reges creabantur, XEP.,
xxin. 7, 4 ; as at Rome (two) consuls, so in Carthage two kings, were
created yearly. Talis (Romae Fabricius), qualis Aristidgs Athgnis, fait, C.,
Off., in. 22, 87; Fabricius was just such a man at Rome as Aristides
was at Athens.
REMARKS. — i. Appositions are put in the Abl. commonly with in;
when the appositive has an attribute, the proper name regularly pre-
cedes : Neapoll, in celeberrimo oppido, C., Rob. Post., 10, 26; at Naples,
a populous town.
2. In the neighborhood of, at, is ad with Ace., especially of military
operations: pugna ad Cannas (better Canngnsis), the battle at Cannae;
pons ad Genavam, CAES., B.G.,i."j; the bridge at Geneva.
NOTE. — The Abl. in names of Towns of the Second Declension is found once in CAE-
SAR (B. C., in. 35, but the reading is questioned) ; more often in VITRDVIUS and later
Latin, but in Greek words only. Apparent exceptions in CAESAR and CICERO are to be
referred to the Abl. of Separation. The poets, however, are free.
387. In citations from Books and in Enumerations, the
Ablative of the Place Where is used without in.
Libro tertio, third book ; versu decim5, tenth verse ; alio Ioc5, elsewhere.
But in is necessary when a passage in a book and not the whole book is
meant : Agricultura laudatur in eo libro qui est cle tuenda re familiar!, C.,
Cat. M., 17, 59; agriculture is praised in the work on domestic economy.
388. In designations of Place, with totus, cunctus, whole ;
omnis, all ; medius, middle, the Ablative of the Place Where
is generally used without in.
Menippus, meo iudicio, tota Asia disertissimus, C., Br., 91, 315 ; Henip-
pus, in my judgment, the most eloquent man in all Asia (Minor).
BattiadSs semper t5to cantabitur orbe, Ov., Am., i. 15, 13 ; Battiades (Cal-
limachus) will always be sung throughout the world.
REMAKE. — In is not excluded when the idea is throughout, in which
case per also may be used. Neg5 in Sicilia t5tS (throughout the whole of
Sicily) ullum argenteum vas fuisse, etc., C., Verr., iv. i, 1.
389. In all such designations of Place as may be regarded
in the light of Cause, Manner, or Instrument, the Ablative
is used without a preposition.
ABLATIVE. 249
Ut terra Thermopylarum angustiae Graeciam, ita marl fretum EurlpI
claudit, L.,xxxi. 23, 12 ; as the pass of Thermopylae bars Greece by
land, so the frith of Euripus by sea. Ariovistus exercitum castrls conti-
nuit, CAES., B.G., i. 48, 4 ; Ariovistus kept his army within the camp.
Egressus est non vils sed tramitibus, C., Ph., xin. 9, 19 ; he went out not
by high roads but by cross-cuts. Nemo Ire quemquam publics probibet
via, PL., Cure., 35 ; no man forbiddeth (any one to) travel by the public
road. Matris cinerSs B8mam Tiber! subvecti aunt, Cf. SUET., Cal., 15;
his mother's ashes were brought up to Rome by the Tiber.
So recipere aliquem tSctS, oppidS, portii, to receive a man into one's
house, toum, harbour; where, however, the Ace. with in is not excluded:
gentes universae in civitatem sunt receptae, C., Balb., 13, 31.
B. ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHENCE.
Ablatlvus Separatlvus.
390. i . The Ablative answers the question Whence ? and
takes as a rule the prepositions ex, out of, d6, from, ab, off.
(Bum) exturbastl ex aedibus 1 PL., Trin., 137 ; did you hustle him out
of the house ? Araneas deiciam de" pariete, PL., St., 355 ; / will get the
cobwebs down from the wall. Alcibiadem AthSnignses 6 clvitate expulS-
runt, Cf. NEP., vn. 6, 2 ; the Athenians banished Alcibiades from the
state. Decedit ex Gallia R5mam Naevius, C., Quinct., 4, 16 ; Naevius
withdrew from Gaul to Rome. TJnde dSiScistl sive ex qu5 loco, sive a
qu5 Ioc5 (whether OUT OF or FROM which place), e5 restituas, C., Caec.,
30, 88.
2. The prepositions are often omitted with Verbs of Ab-
staining, Removing, Relieving, and Excluding ; so regularly
with domo, from home, rure, from the country.
"With Persons a preposition (chiefly ab) must be used.
(Verrgs) omnia dom5 Sius abstulit, C., Verr., 11. 34, 83 ; Verres took
everything aivay from his house. Ego, cum Tullius rure redierit, mittam
eum ad tS, C., Fam., v. 20, 9 ; when Tullius returns from the country, I
will send him to you.
Compare AliSno manum abstineant, CATO, Agr., 5, 1 ; let them keep
their hand(s)from other people's property, with [Alexander] vix a sS mantis
abstinuit, C., Tusc., iv. 37, 79 ; Alexander hardly kept (could hardly
keep) his hands from himself (from laying hands on himself).
Compare Lapidibus optimos viros foro pellis, C., Har.Res., 18, 39; you
drive men of the best classes from the forum with stones, with Istum
aemulum ab e£ pellit5, TER., Eun., 215 ; drive that rival from her.
Compare Omnium rSrum natura cognita llberamur mortis metu, C.,
Fin., i. 19, 63; by the knowledge of universal nature we get rid of the
25O ABLATIVE.
fear of death, with TS ab eo libero, C., Q.F., in. i. 3, 9; / rid you of
him.
Compare Amicitia nullo loco excluditur, C., Lad., 6, 22 ; friendship is
shut out from no place, with Ab ilia excluder, h5c concludor, Cf. TER.,
And., 386 ; I am shut out from HER (and) shut up here (to live with HER).
NOTES.— 1. In classical Latin the preposition is usually employed in local relations,
and omitted in metaphorical relations ; though there are some exceptions.
2. It is to be noted that in the vast majority of cases the separation is indicated by a
verb ; hence this Abl. is found commonly with verbs compounded with prepositions.
Thus, classical Latin shows but few simple verbs with the Abl., as follows : mov6re,
chiefly in general or technical combinations : mov8re Ioc5, senatu, tribu (CAESAR,
however, has no case) ; pellere, in technical language with clvitate, domo, foro,
patria, possessionibus, suls sedibus ; cedere is found with patria, vita, me-
moria, possessione, Italia ; cadere, technical with causa ; solvere with lege
(iSgibus), religione, etc., soru.no ; levare and liberate are found chiefly in meta-
phorical combinations, and especially in CICERO ; arcfire has peculiarly ab with
metaphorical, Abl. with local forces. In the case of most of these verbs, the preposi-
tion with the Abl. is also found.
3. Of compound verbs with the Abl., CICERO shows only s5 abdicate (principally
technical), abesse (rarely), abhorrSre (once) ; abire (in technical uses = sS abdicare),
abrumpere (once), absolvere, abstinSre (intraus. without, trans, more often with,
preposition), deicere (with aedllitate, etc.), de"movere (once), depellere, desistere,
deturbare ; educere (rare) ; efferre (rare) ; ggredl ; Sicere ; 6labi (rare) ; emit-
tere (CAES.) ; gripere (rare ; usually Dat.) ; gvertere ; excgdere ; excludere ;
exire (rare) ; expellere ; exsolvere ; exsistere (rare) ; exturbare ; intercludere ;
interdlcere (alicul aliqua rS ; also alicui aliquid) ; praecipitare (CAES.) ; probi-
bgre ; aupersedere.
Early Latin shows a few more verbs with this construction. The poets are free with
the Abl., and also later prose writers, beginning with LIVT.
4. Hum6,//ww the ground, begins with VERGIL.- The preposition a is found occa-
sionally with domo ; necessarily with a word (adjective or adverb) involving measure-
ment, as ; longinque, longS, procul.
5. Compounds with dl (dis) also take the Dative (in poetry) :
Paulum sepultae dlstat inertiae cSlata virtus, H., O.,TV. 9, 29; little doth
hidden worth differ from buried sloth.
6. The Place Whence gives the Point of View from which. In English a different
translation is often given, though not always necessarily : a tergo, in the rear ; ex
parte dextra, on the right side ; ab oriente, on the east ; a tanto spatio, at such a
distance ; ex fuga, on the flight ; a rS frumentaria labor are, to be embarrassed in
the matter,qf provisions.
3. The prepositions are also omitted with kindred Adjec-
tives.
Animus excelsus ornni est liber cura, C., Fin., i. 15, 49 ; a lofty mind
is free from all care. (Cato) omnibus humanis vitiis immunis, semper for-
tunam in sua potestate habuit, VELL., n. 35, 2 ; Cato, exempt from all
human failings, always had fortune in his own power. lugurtha (Ad-
herbalem) extorrem patria effScit, S., lug., 14, 11 ; lugurtha rendered
Adherbal an exile from his country, Utrumque (fraus et vis) homine
alignissimum, C., Off., 1. 13, 41.
ABLATIVE. 251
NOTES.— 1. The preposition is more usual in most cases. PflrilS and immunis, with
simple Abl., are poetical and post- Augustan. Expers, with Abl. instead of with Gen.,
belongs to early Latin and SALLUST. BecSns, fresh from, with Abl., belongs to
TACITUS.
2. Procul, far from, regularly takes the preposition ab, except in the poets and
later prose.
3. The Abl. of the Supine is early and late, as CATO, Agr., 5 ; Vllicus primus cu-
bitu surgat, postrSmus cubitum eat. See 436, N. 4.
391. Names of Towns and Small Islands are put in the
Ablative of the Place Whence.
DSmarStus ftigit Tarquinios Corintho, C., Tusc., v. 37, 109 ; Demaratus
fled to Tarquinii from Corinth. Dolabella Delo proficlscitur, C., Verr.,
1. 1 8, 46 ; Dolabella sets out from Delos.
REMAKKS. — i. The prepositions ab (a) and ex (6) are sometimes used
for the sake of greater exactness, but rarely in model prose. So regu-
larly ab with the Place from which distance is measured :
[Aesculapii templum] quinque milibus passuum ab urbe [Epidaur5] distat,
Cf. L., XLV. 28, 3 (403, N. I).
When the substantives urbe, city, and oppido, town, are employed, the
use of the preposition is the rule, as also when not the town, but the
neighbourhood is intended ; also always with longg. When the Apposi-
tive has an attribute the proper name regularly precedes.
Aulide, ex oppido Boeotiae, from Aulis, a town of Boeotia. Ex Apol-
lonia Pontl urbe, from Apollonia, a city of Pontus. Ex oppido Gergovia,
CAES., £.G.,vu. 4, 2 ; from the town of Gergovia.
Early Latin is free in the use of prepositions ; and also from LIVY
on the usage seems to increase.
2. The Place Whence embraces all the local designations :
Agrigento ex Aesculapii fano whereas we should say, from the temple
of Aesculapius at Agrigentum. TJnde domo 1 V., A., vui. 114; from what
home ?
3. Letters are dated from rather than at a place.
NOTE.— Names of countries are but rarely used in the Ablative. CICEEO, SAILUST,
and LIVT show no instance, CAESAR only one (B.C., in. 58, 4). Occasional examples
are found in early Latin and in old inscriptions ; then in later historians, beginning
with VELLEIUS. The use of prepositions with towns seems in general to have been a
colloquialism, Cf. SUET., Aug., 86. The poets are free in their usage.
C. ABLATIVE OF THE THING WHEREWITH.
Ablatlvus SociatTvus.
392. The Ablative of Attendance takes the preposition
cum, 'with.
Cum febrl domum rediit, C., Or., in. 2, 6 ; he returned home with a
2$2 ABLATIVE.
fever. Catillna stetit in comitio cum telo, Cf. C.. Cat., i. 6, 15 ; Catiline
stood in the place of election with a weapon (on him). Cum bacu!5 pera-
que [senex], MART., iv. 53, 3 ; an old man with stick and ivallet. Nee te-
cum possum vlvere nee sine t6, MART., xn. 47. 2; I can't live either with
you or without you.
REMARKS. — i. In military phrases, the troops with which a march
is made are put in the Ablative, with or without cum ; generally with-
out cum when an adjective is used (Ablative of Manner), with cum when
no adjective is used (Ablative of Attendance). With definite numbers,
however, cum is regularly employed.
Albani ingenti exercitu in agrum Romanum impetum fecere, L.. I. 23, 3 ;
the Albans attacked the Roman territory with a huge army. Caesar cum
equitibus DCCCC in castra pervSnit, CAES., B.C., i. 41, 1; Caesar arrived
in camp with nine hundred cavalry.
2. Not to be confounded with the above is the Instrumental Abla-
tive :
Navibus profectus est, C., Fam., xv. 3, 2 ; he set out by ship.
So also with verbs which denote other military actions :
Hasdrubal mediam aciem Hispanls firmat, L., xxin. 29, 4 ; Hannibal
strengthens the centre with Spanish troops. Actum nihil est nisi Poeno
milite portas frangimus, Juv., x. 155 ; naught is accomplished unless we
break the gates with the Punic soldiery (as if with a battering-ram).
II. The Figurative Meanings of the Ablative.
A. The Place Where is transferred to the Time When.
Ablative of Time. AblatTvus Temporis.
393. Time AVhen or Within Which is put in the Ablative.
Qua nocte natus Alexander est, eadem Dlanae Ephesiae templum defla-
gravit, Cf. C., N.D., n. 27, 69 ; on the same night on which Alexander
was born, the temple, of Diana of Ephesus burned to the ground. Saturn!
Stella triginta fere" annis cursum suum conficit, C.,N.D., n. 20, 52 ; the
planet Saturn completes its period in about thirty years.
Many adverbial forms of time are really Locative Ablatives :
So hodie, to-day ; herl(e), yesterday ; mane, in the morning.
REMARKS. — i. Time Within Which may be expressed by per and the
Accusative :
Per eos ipsos dies quibus Philippus in Achaia fuit, Pliilocles saltum
Cithaeronis transcendit, L., xxxi. 26, 1 ; during those very days, while
Philip was in Achaia, Philocles crossed the range of Cithaeron.
2. Time Within Which may embrace both extremities ; so usually
with totus, all, whole :
ABLATIVE.
253
Nocte pluit tots, redeunt at mane serSna, V. (PoET. LAT. MIN., iv. 155
B) ; all night (Jupiter) rains; clear skies come back in the morning.
So with definite numbers; but rarely, until the post- Augustan
period :
Scriptum est trlginta annis vixisse Panaetium, posteaquam illos libros
edidisset, C., Off., m. 2, 8 ; it is written that Panaetius lived for thirty
years after he had published those books (not to be confounded with the.
Abl. of Difference, 403). Apud Pythagoram dlscipnlls quinque annis
tacendum erat, SEN., U.M., 52, 10; in the school of Pythagoras the
disciples had to keep silence five years.
3. When the Notion is Negative, the English Time For Which is the
Latin Within Which.
[Koscius] Eoinara multls annis non vSnit, C., Rose. Am., 27, 74 ; Ros-
cius has not come to Rome in (for) many years. Not always, however;
compare Sex mSnsIs iam hie nemo habitat, PL., Most., 954 ; no one has
been living here these six months.
4. Especially to be noted is the Abl. of Time with hie, this ; ille, that :
Cul vigintl his annis snpplicati5 dScreta est 1 C., Ph., xiv. 4, 11 ; to
whom during these last twenty years has a supplication been decreed ?
[Karthaginem] hoc biennio SvertSs, C., Rep., vi. ir, 11 ; Carthage you
will overturn in the next two years.
Transferred to Oratio Obllqua, hie becomes ille (660, 3) :
Diodorus [responditj illud argentum s5 panels illls diebus mlsisse Lily-
baeum, C., Verr., iv. 18, 39 ; Diodorus answered that he had sent that
silver plate to Lilybaeum within a few days (a few days before).
5. The Abl. of Time is regularly accompanied by an attribute in
classical Latin, except in the case of a number of common designations,
as aestate, die, bieme, nocte, vespere (vesperi). Exceptions are rare, such
as comitils, luce, pace, militia, and some names of games.
394. The Ablative with the preposition in is used of points
within a period of time, or of the character of the time.
Bis in dig, twice a day ; in pneritia, in boyhood ; in adulgscentia, in
youth.
Nullo modo mini placuit bis in di5 saturum fieri, C., Tusc., v. 35, 100 ;
it did not suit me in any way to eat my fill twice a day. Feel ego istaec
itidem in adulescentia, PL., B., 410 ; I did those things too in my youth.
REMARK. — The use or omission of in sometimes changes the meaning.
So bello Persico, at the time of the Persian war ; but in bello, in war
times ; in pace, in peace times. Phraseological is in tempore, more fre-
quent than tempore, at the right time. But in illo tempore means in
those circumstances, at that crisis. At present, for the present, is
always in praesentia or in praesenti (rare).
254 ABLATIVE.
NOTES.— 1. Classical Latin confines the use of in to designations of Time of Life
(though here, when an adjective is employed, in is usually omitted) and to the periods
of time. Later in is used much more extensively. With numerals in is the rule. CATO
and the poets have sometimes bis die", as digs = Unas diSs.
2. D5, front, is also used in designations of time : principally in the phrase dS diS,
de nocte. Tit iugulent hominem surgunt de nocte latrones, II., fyi., i. 2, 32 ; to
kUl a man, highwaymen rise by night, i. e., while it is yet night.
Inter, between : Quae prandia inter continuom per did! triennium, PL., St.,
213 ; what luncheons I have lost during three years together.
Intra", within: SubSgit solus intra vlginti dies, PL., Cure., 448; he quelled
them all alone in less than twenty days.
On per, through, see 336, B. 2.
Cum, with, is found occasionally in phrases, as cum prlma luce, with, daybreak.
B. The Place Whence is transferred :
i. To Origin. 2. To Eespect or Specification.
I. Ablative of Origin.
395. Participles which signify Birth take the Ablative of
Origin ; sometimes with the prepositions ex and d§.
Amplissima familia nati adulescentes, CAES., B.G., vn. 37, 1; young
men born of a great house. Numae Pompilii rggis nepos, filia ortus, Ancus
Marcius erat, L., i. 32, 1 ; King Numa Pompilius's grandson, a daugh-
ter's issue, was Ancus Marcius. Maecenas atavis Sdite rggibus, H., 0., i.
i, 1; Maecenas, offshoot of great-grandsire kings. Dis genite et geni-
ture deos, V., A., ix. 639 ; begotten of gods, and destined to beget gods !
Sate sanguine divum! V., A., vi. 125 ; seed of blood divine ! Ex mS
atque ex hoc natus es, TER., Heaut., 1030 ; you are his son and mine.
OdSrunt natos de paelice, Juv.,vi. 627; they hate the offspring of the
concubine.
Ab, and occasionally ex, are employed of remote progenitors :
Plgrlque Belgae sunt ortl ab Germanis, Of. CAES., B.G., n. 4, 1; Bel-
gians are mostly of German descent. Oriundi ex Etruscis, Cf. L., n. 9, 1 ;
of ^Etruscan origin.
NOTES.— 1. The principal participles thus used are natus, prognatus, oriundus ;
ortus, genitus, and satus beghi in prose with LIVT ; gditus and cr6tus are poetic ;
procreatus is late. CICERO uses oriundus but once ; it denotes remote origin.
2. With names of Places the preposition is the rule (362, N. 2) ; but there are a few
exceptions in early Latin and in CICERO, arid a couple of examples in CAESAR. Later
the simple Abl. disappears. The Abl. was the rule with names of Tribes.
Periphangs Rhodo mercator, PL., Asin., 499. Magius Cremona, CAES., B. C.,
i. 24, 4. Q. Verres RSmilia, C., Verr., i. 8, 23 ; Q. Vcrres of the RomUian tribe.
3. With finite verbs denoting Origin, the preposition is regular, except occasionally
with nascl.
4. The Ablative of Agent properly belongs here. But for convenience of contrast it
is treated under 401.
396. The Ablative of Material takes ex in classical Latin.
ABLATIVE. 255
Ex animS c5nstamus et corpore, Cf. C., Fin., iv. 8, 19 ; ice consist of
mind and body.
Statua ex auro, ex acre, facta, a statue made of gold, of bronze. Often
an adjective is used : aureus, golden; ligneus, wooden.
NOTES.— 1. After CICERO constare is used more often with the Abl.; consistere
(with the Abl.) is poetical. Continerl, to be contained in, i.e., almost " to consist of,"
takes the Abl. only, but with a different conception.
Medicina tota constat experimentis, QUINT., n. 17, 9 ; all medicine is made up
of experiments (is empirical).
2. With fieri the previous state is indicated by dS as well as by ex.
D6 templo carcerem fieri! C., Ph., Y. 7, 18 ; from a temple to become a jail.
Fles d6 rhgtore consul, Jtrv., TII. 197 ; from (having been) rhetorician you will
become consul. Ex oratSre arator factus, C., Ph., in. 9, 22 (206, B. 2).
3. Otherwise the simple Ablative of Material is poetic or late :
Mayors caelatus ferr5, V., A., vm. 700 ; Mars carven of iron.
Meliore luto finxit, Juv., xiv. 35 ; he fashioned it of better clay.
2. Ablative of Respect.
397. The Ablative of Kespect or Specification gives the
Point From Which a thing is measured or treated, and is
put in answer to the questions From What Point of View ?
According to What ? By What ? In Respect of What ?
Discrlptus populus censu, ordinibus, aetatibus, C., Leg., in. 19, 44 ; a
people drawn off according to income, rank, (and) age. Ennius ingenio
maximus, arte rudis, Ov., Tr., n. 424 ; Ennius in genius great, in art
unskilled. Animo Ignavus, procax ore, TAC., H., n. 23, 18 ; coward of
soul, saucy of tongue.
Noteworthy are the phrases : crine ruber, red-haired ; captus oculls
(literally, caught in the eyes), blind ; captus mente, insane ; mea sen-
tentia, according to my opinion ; iure, by right ; ISge, by law, etc. ; and
the Supines in -u (436).
NOTES.— 1. Prepositions are also used, which serve to show the conception :
(Caesaris) adventus ex colore vestltus cognitus, 6/. CAES., B.£., vn. 88, l ;
the arrival of Caesar was known by the color of his clothing. DS gestu intellego
quid respondeas, C., Vat., 15, 35 ; Innderstand by your gesture what answer you are
giving. Ab animo aeger fui, PL., Ep., 129 ; at heart I was sick. OtiSsum ab
animo, TER., Ph., 340 ; easy in mind'.
Similarly ex I5ge, according to law ; ex pact5, according to agreement ; ex (d5)
more, according to custom ; ex animi sententia, according to (my) heart's desire ;
ex usu, useful.
2. A special category is formed by words indicating eminence or superiority ; so ex-
cellere, antecellere, praestare, superare, vincere ; and the adjectives : Insignia,
illustris, dignus ; excellens, praecellgns. Praecellere is found in early and late
Latin, while dlgnarl is poetic and post- Augustan.
MaximS populus Eomanus animi magnitudine excellit, C., Off., 1. 18, 61 ; the
Roman peojfe excel most in loftiness of mind.
On dignus with Gen., see 374, N. 10.
256 ABLATIVE.
A curious usage is that of dec5rus and decSre, with Abl., in PL., M. G., 619; Asin.^j.
3. The origin of these constructions is still undetermined. They may be deduced
also from the Instrumental side of the Abl., or from the Locative side.
398. The Ablative of Eespect is used with the Compara-
tive instead of quam, than, with the Nominative or Accusa-
tive ; but in the classical language mainly after a negative,
or its equivalent. (Abldtlvus Compardtionis.)
Tunica propior palliost, PL., Trin., 1154 ; the shirt is nearer than the
cloak. Nibil est virtute amabilius, C., Lael., 8, 28 ; nothing is more
attractive than virtue. Quid est in homine ratiSne dlvlnius* C., Leg., i.
7, 22 ; ivhat is there in man more godlike than reason ?
So also after adverbs, but not so freely in prose :
Lacrima nihil citius argscit, C., Inv., I. 56, 109 ; nothing dries more
quickly than a tear. NSm5 est qul tib! sapientius suadgre possit t6 ips5,
C., Fam., ii. 7, 1 ; there is no one who can give you wiser advice than
you yourself. Fulcrum Srnatum turpes morgs peius caeno conlinunt, PL.,
Most., 291 ; foul behavior doth bedraggle fine apparel worse than mud.
REMARK. — When the word giving the point of view is a relative, the
Abl. must be used. See 296, R. 2.
Fbldiae simulacris quibus nihil in illo genere perfectius vidimus, cogitate
tamen possumus pulchriora, C., Or., 2, 8 ; the statues of Pheidias, than
ivhich we see nothing more perfect in their kind, still leave room for us
to imagine those that are more beautiful.
NOTES. — 1. The comparative is also employed with the Abl. of certain abstract
substantives and adjectives used as substantives ; so oplni5ne, spe", exspectatione ;
aequo, iusto, solito, and the like, all post-Ciceronian except aequo, opinione.
(Consul) sSrius sp6 (= quam spSs fuerat) Romam v6nit, L., xxvi. 26,4 ; the
cotisul came to Rome later than was hoped. Solito citatior amnis, L., xxm. 19, 11;
the river running faster than usual.
2. Aeque and adaequS are found once each in PLAUTUS with the Abl.; and then
not till the time of the elder PLINY.
3. For other details, see 206 and 644.
C. ABLATIVE OF THE THING WHEREWITH.
AblatTvus Sociatlvus. Ablative of Attendance.
1 . Ablative of Manner.
399. The Ablative of Manner answers the question How ?
and is used with the Preposition cum when it has no Adjec-
tive ; with or without cum when it has an Adjective or its
equivalent. (Abldtlvus Modi.)
[StellaeJ circulos suos orbgsque conficiunt celeritate mlrabill, C., Rep., vi.
15, 15 ; the stars complete their orbits with wonderful swiftness. Vos
ABLATIVE. 257
5r8 ut attentS bongque cum venia verba mea audiatis, C.. Rose. Am., 4, 9 ;
/ beg you to hear my words attentively and with kind indulgence.
Beats vlvere, honeste", id est cum virtute, vivere, C., Fin., ill. 8, 29 ; to
live happily is to live honestly, that is, virtuously. •
NOTES.— 1. The simple Abl. without an attribute is confined to a few substantives,
which have acquired adverbial force ; early Latin shows astu, curriculo, dolo, ergo,
gratils and ingratils, iocu.16, merito, numero, optato, online, sortito, volun-
tate, vulgo. TERENCE adds : vl, iiire, iniuria. Classical Latin shows some of
these, also ratione, ratione et via, moribus, consu6tudine, silentiS, casu, le"ge,
fraude, vitio, Sacramento (beginning with LIVY), and a few others. Sometimes the
idea of Specification is prominent, as in lege, iure (397) ; sometimes it is hard to dis-
tinguish between the Manner and the Instrument : vl, violently and by violence ; vl et
armis, by force of arms ; pedibus, afoot ; navibus, by ship. Notice, also, the use of
per, through, with the Accusative : per vim, by violence ; per litteras, by letter.
2. The post-Ciceronian Latin extends the use of the Abl. without an attribute.
3. The phrases sub condicione, sub 16ge, etc., begin with LIVY.
2. Ablative of Quality.
(Descriptive Ablative.)
400. The Ablative of Quality has no Preposition, and al-
ways takes an Adjective or an equivalent.
[Hannibalis] nomen erat magna apud omnSs gl5ria, C., Or., n. 18, 75 ;
the name of Hannibal icas glorious in the esteem of all the world.
(AgSsilaus) statura fuit humill, NEP., xvu. 8, 1 ; Agesilaus was (a man)
of low stature. Ista turpiculo puella naso, CAT., 41, 3 ; that girl of yours
with the ugly nose. Clavi ferrei digitl pollicis crassitudine, Cf. CAES.,
B,G., in. 13, 4 ; iron nails of the thickness of your thumb.
REMARKS. — i. External and transient qualities are put by prefer-
ence in the Ablative ; Measure, Number, Time, and Space are put in
the Genitive only ; parts of the body in the Ablative only. Otherwise
there is often no difference.
2. Of unnatural productions cum may be used : agnus cum suillS
capite, L., xxxi. 12, 7 ; a lamb with a sivine's head.
3. Ablative of Means.
401. The Means or Instrument is put in the Ablative
without a Preposition.
The Agent or Doer is put in the Ablative with the Prepo-
sition ab (a). The Person Through Whom is put in the
Accusative with per.
Xerxes certior factus est, ( '" nQnti5' ^ a messa^
Xerxes was informed, ] 2~ a nunti5' ^ a messenffer-
( 3. per nuntium, by means of a messenger.
17
2$8 ABLATIVE.
Qui sunt homines, a quibus ille se lapidibus adpetltum, etiam percussum
esse dlxit ? C., Dom., 5, 13 ; who are the men by whom he said he had been
thrown at with stones, and even hit ? Vulgo occidebantur ? Per qu8s
et a quibus 1 C., Rose. Am., 29, 80; ivere they cut down openly 9 Tlirough
whose instrumentality and by whose agency ? Nee bene promeritls capi-
tur neque tangitur Ira, LUCR., n. 651 (227, N. 4). Ipse docet quid agam:
fas est et ab hoste docerl, Ov., M., iv. 428 (219). Discite sanari per quern
didicistis amare, Ov., Hem. Am., 43; learn to be healed by means of (him
by) whom you learned to love.
REMARKS. — i. When the Instrument is personified and regarded as
an Agent, or the Agent is regarded as an Instrument, the constructions
are reversed ; when an adjective is used, the construction may be
doubtful; see 354, x. i, and 214, R. 2.
So iacent suls tSstibus, C., Mil., 18, 47 ; they are cast by their own
witnesses; or, they are cast, their own men being witnesses.
2. A quality, when personified, has the construction of the person.
So de-sen a mente, a spe,
Vobis animus ab ignavia atque socordia conruptus [est], S., lug., 31, 2;
you have had your soul(s) debauched by sloth and indifference.
NOTES. — 1. The number of verbs construed with this Abl. is very large and com-
prises several categories ; so verbs of Clothing and Providing, Adorning and Endow-
ing, Training (grudJre also takes in ; others take Ace., see 339), Living and Nour-
ishing, etc.
2. Of special importance are assugsco, assuSfacio, assuStus; (Catillna) see-
lerum exercitatione assugfactus, C., Cat., n. 5, 9. The Dat. is found first in LIVY
in prose. Ad with the Ace. is also classical.
3. Afficere, to treat, with the Ablative, is a favorite turn ; see the Lexicons.
4. Verbs of sacrificing, such as sacrificare, sacrum facere, divlnam rem facere,
facere and fieri (mostly poetical), immolare, litare (poetical), have the Abl. of Means.
But immolare usually has Ace. and Dat., and so the others occasionally, except
facere.
Qulnquaginta capris sacrificavgrunt, L., XLV. 16, 6 ; they sacrificed fifty she-
5. Here belong also verbs like pluere, sudare (not classic), stillare (not classic),
fluere, manare, and the like : sanguine pluisse, L., xxiv. 10, 7. The Ace. is also
common.
6. NItor, I stay myself, is construed with the Abl.; occasionally with in. FIdo,
confide, / trust, rely on, have the Abl. ; but with persons the Dat., sometimes also with
things. On the other hand, diffidS, / distrust, always has the Dat. in classical Latin,
but TACITUS shows Abl., and so do other later writers. Stare, to abide by, usually
has the Abl., but occasionally in ; manSre has usually in ; the Abl. is poetical. Acqui-
fiscere, to acquiesce in, with Abl. is rare. FrStus, supported, takes the Abl. regularly;
LIVT alone uses the Dative. Contentus, satisfied with (oy), is used only of one's own
possessions (rSbus, fortuna, etc.), and has the Ablative.
Salus omnium non vgritate solum sed etiam fama nltitur, '/. C., Q.F., i. ii.
i,2; the welfare of all rests not on truth alone, but also on repute. Eius iudicio stare
nolim, C., TUSC., n. 26, 63 ; I should not like to abide by his judgment.
7. A remnant of the old usage is found with fI5, facio, and esse :
Quid fgcistl scipione 1 PL., Cos., 975 ; what have you done with the wand? Quid
ABLATIVE. 259
mS flet ? PL-, Most., 1166 ; what will become of me? Quid t5 futurumst 1 TEH.
Ph., 137 ; what is to become of you ? Quid hoc homine facias T C., Verr., u. 16, 39
how will you dispose of this man? Quid hulc homini facias ? C., Caecin., ti, 30
what ivill you do to this man f Quid d§ nobls futurum [estj ? C., Fam., ix. 17, 1
wAa< is to happen in our case?
The use of the Dative is rare, and still more rare the use of dS.
The construction is colloquial, and never found in CAESAR and TACITUS ; it is
always in an interrogative sentence, except in CATO and OVID.
4. Ablative of Standard. AblatTvus Mensurae.
402. The Standard of Measure is put in the Ablative with
verbs of Measurement and Judgment.
Benevolentiam non ardor e amoris sed stabilitate iudicgmus, C., Off., i.
15, 47 ; good will we are to judge not by ardour but by steadfastness.
Magnos homings virtute mgtimur, non fortuna, NEP., xvni. i, 1 ; we meas-
ure great men by worth, not by fortune. Sonls homings ut aera tinnitu
dlgnoscimus, QUINT., xi. 3,8! ; we distinguish men by sound, as coppers
by ring.
REMARKS. — i. It is often hard to distinguish the Measure from the
Eespect (see 397).
2. Ex with the Abl. is frequently found with these verbs ; so regu-
larly with aestimare, existimare, spectare, in the sense of judge, value.
Dicendum erit non esse ex fortuna fidem ponderandam, C., Part. Or., 34,
117 ; the plea will have to be made that faith is not to be weighed by
fortune. Sic est vulgus : ex vgritate pauca, ex opinione multa aestimat, C.,
Rose. Com., 10, 29 ; this is the way of the rabble : they value few things
by (the standard of) truth, many by (the standard of) opinion.
403. Measure of Difference is put in the Ablative.
851 multis partibus maior (est) quam terra universa, C., N.D., 11. 36, 92;
the sun is many parts larger than the whole earth. (Via) alters tant5
longiorem habgbat anfractum, NEP., xvni. 8, 5; the road had a bend (that
made it) longer by as much again, as long again. QuinquiSns tantS am-
plius Verrgs, quam licitum est, clvitatibus imperavit, Cf. C., Verr., in. 97,
225 ; Verres levied on the various cities five times more than was allowed
by law. Turrgs dgnls pedibus quam murus altiorgs sunt, CURT., v. i, 26 ; the
towers are (by) ten feet higher than the wall. Tanto est acciisare quam
dgfendere, quanto facere quam sanare vulnera, facilius, QUINT., v. 13, 3; it
is as much easier to accuse than to defend, as it is easier to inflict wounds
than to heal them. Perfer et obdura : multS graviora tulistl, Ov., Tr., v.
n, 7; endure to the end and be firm : you have borne much more grievous
burdens.
NOTES.— 1. This rule applies to verbs involving difference (such as abesse, dlstare,
malle, praestare, excellere, etc.), as well as to comparatives, with which must be
reckoned infra, supra, ultra.
26o ABLATIVE.
[Aesculapil templum] qulnque mllibus passuum ab urbe [EpidaurSl dlstat,
C!f. L., XLV. 28, 3 ; the temple of Aesculapius is five miles from the city ofEpidaurus.
2. The Ace. is sometimes employed (see 335) ; especially with neuter adjectives mul-
tum, tantum, etc., but this is not common except with verbs.
3. The Plautine Abl. nimi5, with the comparative, is not classical (compare [C.],
Alt., x. 8 A, 1), but reappears in LIVY. Aliter with this Abl. is very rare and is not clas-
sical. So also the Abl. with the positive, of which a few examples are cited from early
Latin, as TER., Heaul., 205.
4. (a) Especially to be noted is the use of the Abl. of Measure with ante, before,
and post, offer :
Panels ante diebus, Panels diSbus ante, a few days before.
Panels post digbus, Paucis diSbus post, a few days after, aftenvard.
Duobus annis postquam Roma condita est, two years after Rome was founded.
Paulo post Troiam captam, a little while after the taking of Troy.
The Ace. can also be employed : post paucSs ann5s, after a few years ; ante paucos
annos, a few years before ; and the ordinal as well as the cardinal numbers (but only
when quam follows) : two hundred years after(ward) may be :
Ducentls annis post or Ducentesimo anno post,
Post ducentos anuos or Post ducentesimum annum.
(b) Ante and post do not precede the Abl. in classical Latin except with aliquantO
(rare) and paulo. Ante and post, with the Ace. followed by quam, instead of ante-
quam and postquam with the Abl., belong preeminently to post-classical Latin ;
classical examples are rare. CICERO never has ante.
(c) Ante hos sex mSnsSs, six months ago (compare 393, R. 4) more frequently
abhino sex menses (336, R. 3) ; abhinc sex mensibus, means six months before.
(d) With a relative sentence the Abl. of the relative may be used alone, instead of
ante (post) quam :
Mors Rosen quadriduo quo is occlsus est, Chrysogono nuntiatur, c., Rose.
Am., 37, 105 ; the death of Roscius was announced to Chrysogonus four days after he
was killed (in the course of the four days within which he was killed). See 393.
(e) Hence is ad : ad sex mensSs, six months hence.
(f) Do not confuse the Ace. with ante and post with the Ace. of Duration of Time.
5. Ablative of Price.
404. Definite Price is put in the Ablative.
Eriphyla auro virl vitam v6ndidit, C., Inv., i. 50, 94; Eriphyle sold her
husband's life for gold. Vlgintl talentis unam orationem Isocrates v5n-
didit, PLIN., N.H., vn. 31, 110; Isocrates sold one speech for twenty tal-
ents. Emit morte immortalitatem, QUINT., is. 3, 71 ; he purchased death-
lessness with death. Argentum accept, dote imperium vgndidl, PL., Asin.,
87 ; the cash I took, (and) for a dowry sold my sway.
NOTES.— 1. Mfttare, to exchange, is sometimes Give, sometimes Get; sometimes
Sell, sometimes Buy. The latter use is confined to poetry and later prose.
Nemo nisi victor pace bellum mutavit, S., C., 58. 15 ; no one unless victorious
(ever) exchanged war for peace. Misera pax vel bellB bene mutatur, Cf. TAC.,
Ann., in. 44, 10 ; a wretched peace is well exchanged even for war.
But cur valle permutem Sablna dlvitias operosiores 1 H., 0., in. i, 47 ; why
should I exchange my Saoine valefo?' riches sure to breed (me) greater trouble?
2. So vgnalis, vllis, cheap ; earns, dear. N5n, edepol, minis trecentls carast,
PL., Pers., 668 ; she in not dear, \fore George, at three hundred minae.
3. For Genitive of Price, see 379.
ABLATIVE. 26l
6. Ablative with Verbs of Plenty and Want.
405. Verbs of Depriving and Filling, of Plenty and Want,
take the Ablative.
[Dgmocritus] dlcitur oculls s6 prlvasse, C., Fin., v. 29, 87; Democritus
is said to have deprived himself of his eyes. Deus bonis omnibus explSvit
mundum, C'f. C. , Univ. ,3,9; God has filled the universe with all bless-
ings. Capua fortissimSrum virorum multitudine redundat, C. , Pis. , 1 1, 25 ;
Capua is full to overflowing with a multitude of gallant gentlemen. Non
caret effects, quod voluSre duo, Ov., Am., n. 3, 16; what two have resolved
on never lacks execution. Qu5 maior est in [animis] praestantia, eo maiore
indigent diligentia, C., Tusc., iv. 27, 58.
NOTES.— 1. Verbs of Depriving are commonly referred to the Ablative of Separation,
rather than to the Instrumental Ablative, and are put here for convenience of contrast.
But it must be remembered that in the classic tongues the construction of opposites is
identical.
2. Egeo and (more frequently) indigeo also take the Genitive :
N5n tarn artis indigent quam. laboris, C., Or., i. 34, 156 ; they are not so much
in need of skill as of industry. So implSrl, V., A., i. 214.
3. Adjectives of Plenty and Want take the Gen., but Borne of them follow the
analogy of the verb (374, N. 1). So onustus, or bus, have Abl. more often than Gen.;
indigus, egenus, and inops have the Gen. more commonly. PlSnus has usually
the Gen.; the Abl. in increasing proportion from LUCRETIUS on. FrequSns and va-
lidus do not take the Gen. until the post-Augustan period. See 374.
Asellus onustus auro, C., AtL, 1. 16, 12; a donkey laden with gold. Pollicitis
dives quilibet esse potest, Ov., A. A., i. 444 ; anybody can be rich in promises.
Amor et melle et felle est fScundissimus, PL., Cist., 67 ; love is (very) fruitful both
in honey and in gall (of acrimony).
406. Opus and tisus take the Dative of the Person who
Wants and the Ablative of the Thing Wanted ; but the Thing
Wanted may be the subject, and opus (not usus) the predicate.
NovS consilio mini nunc opus est, PL., Ps., 601 ; a new device is what
I'm needing now. Vlginti iam usust filio argent! minis, PL., Asin., 89;
my son has urgent need of twenty silver minae. Nihil opus est simula-
tione et fallScils, C., Or., n. 46, 191 ; there is no need of making believe,
and of cheating tricks. N5n opus est verbls sed fustibus, C., Pis., 30,
73 ; there is need not of words, but of cudgels. Emas n5n quod opus est,
sed quod necesse est ; quod non opus est asse carum est, CATO (SEN., E.JL,
94, 27); buy not what you want, but what is absolutely needful; what
you do not want (have no use for) is dear at a penny.
So with the Perfect Participle Passive.
Quod parato opus est para, TER., And., 523 ; what must be got ready,
get ready. Vlcino conventost opus, PL., Gas., 502 ; the neighbour must
262 ABLATIVE.
be called on. Citius quod non factost usus fit quam quod factost opus, PL.,
Am., 505.
NOTES.— 1. Opus est means properly : (here is work to be done with ; usus est,
there is making use of Oike utor) ; hence the Ablative. Some think that opus takes
Abl. by analogy with usus.
2. Opus est is common throughout ; usus est is very rarely found after the early
period. It belongs especially to comedy.
3. The Gen. with opus occurs twice in Lirr ; also hi PEOPEBTIUS, QUINTILIAN, and
APULETDS.
4. The neut Ace. is usually adverbial (333, i) :
Quid (Ace.) digitos opus est graphic lassare tenendo 1 Ov., Am., i. u, 23 ;
what is the -use of tiring the fingers by JiMding the stylus f
5. Besides the Pf. Part, pass., we find the Infin. and sometimes ut ; in this case the
Person is usually in the Dat. with opus (usus), but may be in the Ace. with the Inf.,
or may be omitted.
Opus est te ammo valgre ut corpore possls, C., Fam., xvi. 14, 2 ; you must be
well in mind in order to be well in body. An quoiquamst usus homini sS ut
cruciet ? TEB., Heaut., 81 ; of what good is it to any man to torture himself?
The Supine is found occasionally ; in CICERO only scltti (Inv., i. 20, 28 ; disputed).
6. In PLAUTUS and LUCRETIUS are occasional examples of usus as a predicate, with
the Thing Wanted as the subject.
7. Ablative with Sundry Verbs.
407. The Deponent Verbs utor, abutor, fruor, fungor, potior,
and vescor, take the Ablative.
Victoria utl nescis, L., xxn. 51, 4 ; how to make use of victory you
know not. Quo usque tandem abutSre patientia nostra, C., Cat., i. i, 1 ;
how long, tell me, will you abuse our patience ? Lux qua fruimur a De5
nobis datur, Cf. C., Rose. Am., 45, 131 ; the light which we enjoy is given
to us by God. Funguntur officio ; dgfendunt su5s, C., Gael., 9, 21 ; they
acquit themselves of a duty ; they defend their own people. Fungar
vice cotis, H., A. P., 304; I shall acquit myself of , discharge, theoffice of
a whetstone. Tutius esse arbitrabantur sine ullo vulnere victoria potlri,
CAES., B.G., HI. 24, 2; they thought it safer to make themselves masters
of the victory without any wound. Numidae lacte vescebantur, S., lug.,
89, 7 ; the Numidians made their food of milk (fed on milk).
NOTES. — 1. These Ablatives are commonly regarded as Ablatives of the Instrument :
but fruor, I get fruit, and vescor, I feed myself from, and perhaps fungor, may take
the Abl. as a Whence-case.
2. These verbs seem to have been originally construed with the Ace. ; but this case
is not found in classical Latin except in the Gerundive construction (427, N. 5).
(a) Utor with Ace. is very common in PLAUTUS, less so in TERENCE, but only with
neuter pronouns. CATO uses also the neuter of substantives. Abutor is combined only
with Ace. in early Latin.
(6) Fruor with Ace. is not in PLAUTUS, but occasionally in TERENCE and CATO.
Frunlscor (rare) is transitive in PLAUTUS and QUADRIGARIUS (ap. GELL.).
(c) Fungor with Ace. is the rule in early Latin (TER., Ad., 603, is disputed), then
in NEPOS, TACITUS, SUETONIUS, and later.
(d) Potior has Gen. at all periods (rare in CICERO ; once in CAESAR) ; the Ace.
ABLATIVE. 263
occasionally in early and late Latin, in the b. Afr., the b. Ilisp., and in SALLUST. Note-
worthy is the use of an act. potire with Gen. in PL., Am., 178, and a pass, potltus with
Gen. in several places in PLAUTUS.
(e) Vescor takes the Ace. rarely in early Latin, in the poets, and in later Latin.
VIvere, helluarl, take Abl. like vescl.
3. Utor is a favorite word, and has a most varied translation :
Uti aliquo amlco, to avail one's self of (to enjoy) a man's friendship (to have a
friend in him) ; utl consilio, to follow advice ; utl bond patre, to have the advantage
of having a good father ; utl ISgibus, to obey the laws. See the Lexicons.
D. ABLATIVE OF CAUSE.
408. The Ablative of Cause is used without a preposition,
chiefly with Verbs of Emotion. Abldtlvus Causae.
In culpa sunt qul officia deserunt mollitia animl, C., Fin., 1. 10, 33 ;
they are to Uame who shirk their duties from effeminacy of temper.
6d6runt peccare bonl virtutis amore, tt.,JJJp., 1. 16, 52 ; the good hate to
sin from love of virtue. Delicto dolere, corrections gaudere (oportet), C.,
Lael., 24, 90 ; one ought to be sorry for sin, to be glad of chastisement.
Non did potest quam flagrem deslderio urbis, C., Att., v. n, 1 ; J burn
(am afire) beyond expression with longing for Rome.
NOTES.— 1. A number of combinations become phraseological, as the verbals : arbi-
tratu, hortatu, impulsu, iussu, missu, rogatu, etc.; also consiliS, auctoritate,
with a Gen. or possessive pronoun : iussu Clvium, at the bidding of the citizens ; meo
rogatu, at my request.
2. The moving cause is often expressed by a participle with the Abl., which usually
precedes : adductus, led ; ardSns, fired ; commotus, stirred up ; incitatus, egged
on ; incSnsus, inflamed ; impulsus, driven on ; motus, moved, and many others ;
amSre, by love ; Ira, by anger ; odio", by hate ; metu, by fear ; spS, by hope, etc.
Metu perterritus, sore frightened ; verScundia dSterritus, abashed, etc.
3. Instead of the simple Abl. the prepositions d6 and ex (sometimes in), with the
Abl., ob and propter with the Ace., are often used ; perhaps occasionally ab.
4. The preventing cause is expressed by prae, for (417, 9) : Prae gaudio ubi sim
nescio, TEB., ffeaut., 308 ; I Mow not where I am for joy.
5. On causa and gratis with the Gen., see 373.
6. The use of the Abl. for the external cause, as regale genus non tarn rggnl
quam rggis vitiis repudiation est (C., Leg., in. 7, 15), the kingly form of govern-
ment was rejected not so much by reason of the faults of the kingly form, as by reason
of the faults of the king, is not common in the early and in the classical period, except
in certain formulee ; but it becomes very common later.
7. The Ablative of Cause may have its origin in the Instrumental Ablative, in the
Ablative of Source, or in the Comitatlve Ablative.
E. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE.
409. The so-called Ablative Absolute is an Ablative com-
bined with a participle, and serves to modify the verbal
predicate of a sentence. Instead of the participle, a predi-
cative substantive or adjective can be employed.
264 ABLATIVE.
NOTE. — This Ablative, which may be called the Ablative of Circumstance, springs
from the Temporal Use of the Ablative— the Temporal from the Local. Another view
regards it as an Ablative of Manner, with a predicate instead of an attribute.
410. The Ablative Absolute may be translated by the Eng-
lish so-called Nominative (originally Dative) Absolute, which
is a close equivalent ; but for purposes of style, it is often
well to analyse the thought, to change Passive into Active,
to make use of an abstract substantive.
Xerxe r§gnante (= cum Xerxes rSgnaret), Xerxes reigning. When
Xerxes was reigning. In the reign of Xerxes.
Xerxe vict5 (— cum Xerxes victus esset), Xerxes being, having been,
defeated. When Xerxes had been defeated. After the defeat of Xerxes.
Xerxe rSge (= cum Xerxes rSx esset), Xerxes [being} king. When
Xerxes was king.
Patre viv5, WHILE father is, was alive (in father's lifetime).
Urbe expugnata imperator rediit :
PASSIVE FORM : The city [being] taken (after the city was taken), the
general returned.
ACTIVE FORM ; Having taken the city (after he had taken the city),
the general returned.
ABSTRACT FORM : After the taking of the city. After talcing the
city.
Maxima's virtutes iacgre omnes necesse est voluptate dorninante, C.,
Fin., ii. 35, 117 ; all the great(est) virtues must necessarily lie prostrate,
IP (or WHEN) the pleasure (of the senses) is mistress. Eomanl vetergs
rSgnari omnes volebant liber tatis dulcedine nondum experts, L., i. 17, 3 ;
the old Romans all wished to have a king over them (BECAUSE they had)
not yet tried the sweetness of liberty.
REMARKS. — i. As the Latin language has no Pf. Part, active, ex-
cept when the Deponent is thus used, the passive construction is far
more common than in English :
luvenes veste posita corpora ole5 perunxgrunt, C., Tusc., I. 47, 113 ; the
youths, (having) laid aside their clothing, anointed their bodies with oil;
or, laid aside their clothing, and anointed their bodies with oil.
2. The Abl. Abs., though often to be rendered by a coordinate sen-
tence, for convenience' sake, always presents a subordinate conception :
(Lysander ) suadet Lacedaemonils ut regia potestate dissoluta ex omnibus
dux dgligatur ad bellum gerendum, NEP., vi. 3, 5 ; Lysander advises the
Lacedaemonians that the royal power be done away with, AND a leader
be chosen from all, to conduct the war. Here the one is necessary to the
other.
3. As a rule, the Abl. Abs. can stand only when it is not identical
LOCATIVE. 265
with the subject, object, or dependent case of the verbal predicate.
Manlius slew the Gaul and stripped him of his necklace is to be ren-
dered : Manlius caesum Gallum torque spoliavit.
This rule is frequently violated at all periods of the language, for
the purpose either of emphasis or of stylistic effect. The shifted con-
struction is clearer, more vigorous, more conversational.
Neque ilium m8 vivo corrumpl sinam, PL., 5., 41 9 ; nor will I suffer
him to be debauched while I am alive.
The violation is most frequent when the dependent case is in the
Genitive :
lugurtha fratre me5 interfecto rggnum 6ius sceleris su! praedam fScit,
S., lug., 14, 11 ; Jugurtha killed my brother, and (= after killing my
brother) made his throne the booty of his crime.
NOTES.— 1. The Pf. Part, of Deponents and Semi-deponents as an active in the
Ahl. Abs. is not found in early Latin, and is not common in classical Latin, where
it is always without an object and is confined to verbs of Growth (principally ortus,
COOrtus, natus), Death, and Motion. It becomes common later, being used with an
object from SALLUST on.
2. The Pf. Part, of Deponent^ as a passive in the Abl. Abs. is confined in classical
Latin to Smeritus, pactus, partltus. SALLUST and Lnnr, as well as later writers,
extend the usage. TACITUS, however, shows but two cases : adeptus (Ann., i. 7, 8) and
ausus (Ann., in. 67, 4).
3. The Fut. Part. act. in the Abl. Abs. is post-Ciceronian, beginning with POLLIO
and LIVT.
4. The impersonal use of the Abl. Abs. is found not unfrequently in early Latin
and CICERO, rarely in CAESAH and SALLUST. Most of the forms so used have become
adverbial in character, as optato, sortlto, intestato. cousulto, auspicate, dirgcto,
merits, etc. The use of a following clause dependent upon the Abl. is begun in
CICERO : adiunctS ut (Off., n. 12, 42). SALLUST uses audit 6 and compertS with the
Infinitive. But LIVT extends this construction very greatly, and introduces the use of
neuter adjectives in the same way : incertO prae tenebrls quid aut peterent aut
Vltarent, L., xxvm. 36, 12. It is frequent in TACITUS.
5. The use of adjectives and substantives in the Abl. is not common in early Latin,
but is a favorite usage of the classical period and later : m5 auctore, C., Or., in.
14, 54.
6. A predicate substantive, with the participle, is rare, but occurs in good prose :
PraetSre designate mortu5 filio, c., Tmc,, in. 28, 70.
LOCATIVE.
411. In the Singular of the First and Second Declensions,
names of Towns and Small Islands are put in the Locative
of the Place Where.
PompSius hiemare Dyrrhachii, Apollouiae omnibusque oppidis constitu-
erat, CAES., B. C., m. 5, i ; Pompey had determined to winter at Dyr-
rhachium, Apollonia, and all the towns. TImotheus Lesbl (vixit), NEP.,
xn. 3, 4 ; Timotheus lived at Lesbos. Rhodi ego non ful, sed ful in
Blthynia, C., Plane., 34, 83 ; I was not at Rhodes, but J was in Bithynia.
266 PREPOSITIONS.
REMARKS. — i. A few substantives of the Third Declension also form
sporadic Locatives ; so CarthaginI, in PLAUTUS, CICERO, and later ;
Tlburi in CICERO, Livr, and later, and a few others. See 386.
2. Other Locative forms are, doml, at home (61, R. 2), humi, on the
ground (first in CICERO), belli, and mllitiae, in the combinations doml
mllitiaeque, belli domlque, in peace and in war, at home and in the field ;
rurl, in the country (but rure me5, on my farm).
Parvl sunt forls arma nisi est cSnsilium doml, C., Off., i. 22,76; of
little value are arms abroad unless there is wisdom at home. lacSre
humi, C., Cat., i. 10, 26 ; to lie on the ground. Humi prosternere, L.,
XLV. 20, 9; to throw flat on the ground.
Belli is found alone occasionally in TERENCE and CICERO ; ENNIUS,
VERGIL, and OVID have terrae ; VERGIL also campi.
3. Appositions are put in the Ablative, commonly with in, and regu-
larly follow when qualified by an attribute :
MilitSs Albae constitSrunt in urbe opportuna, C., Ph., iv. 2, 6; the sol-
diers halted at Alba, a conveniently situated town. Archias Antiochlae
natus est celebrl quondam urbe, C., Arch., 3, 4 ; Archias was born at
Antioch, once a populous city.
When urbe, city, oppido, town, or insula, island, precedes, the prep-
osition is always employed :
In urbe Roma, in the city (of) Rome. In oppido Citio, in the town of
Citium. In Insula Samo, in the island (of) Samos.
4. Doml takes the possessive pronoun in the Genitive :
Doml suae senex est mortuus, C., N.D., in. 32, 81; the old man died
at his own house. Metuis ut meae doml curetur dlligenter, TER., Hec.,
257; you fear that she will not be carefully nursed at my house. Also
alienae domul (61, R. 2), C., Tusc., i. 22, 51; in a strange house ; doml
illius, C., Div. in Caec., 18, 58 ; in his house.
But in domo Pericll (65), NEP., vii. 2, 1 ; in the household) of Pericles.
In domo casts, in a pure house. In domo, in the house (not, at home).
NOTES.— 1. Early Latin shows a number of Locative forms that have disappeared
for the most part in the classical period. So temperl (tempori) replaced by tempore
in CICERO (LivT and TACITUS only in tempore) ; niani, replaced by mane ; vesper!
and herl ; and rare forms like diS, crastini, proximi. See 37, 5.
2. On Locative forms of the pronouns, see 91, 3. On animl, see 374, s. 7.
PREPOSITIONS.
412. The Prepositions are originally local adverbs, which
serve to define more narrowly the local ideas involved in the
cases. The analogy of the local adverbs is followed by other
adverbs, which are not so much prepositions as prepositional
adverbs. Of the Prepositions proper, that is, Prepositions
PREPOSITIONS. 267
used in composition (see Note), as well as in the regimen of
cases, cum (con) does not clearly indicate a local relation.
The only cases that involve local ideas are the Accusative
and Ablative. The Accusative, as the case of the Direct
Object, represents the relation whither ? the Ablative repre-
sents the relations whence 9 and where f
REMARKS. — i. In verbs of Motion, the Result of the Motion is often
considered as Rest in a place (where). See 385, N. 2.
z. In verbs of Rest, the Rest is sometimes conceived as the Result
of Motion (whither). See 385, N. 3.
NOTE.— Prepositions derive their name from the fact that they are prefixed in com-
position. Many of the Latin Prepositions are not used in composition, and these may
be called improper Prepositions. The prefixes amb- (am- an-), dis (dl), por- (porr-,
pol-), red- (re-), S6d- (S6-) and vS- are sometimes called inseparable prepositions.
413. Position of the Preposition. — The Preposition gener-
ally precedes the case.
REMARKS. — i. Cum always follows a personal pronoun, and may or
may not follow a relative pronoun : mScum, with me ; quocum or cum
qu5, with whom. DS is not uncommonly placed after qu5 and qua, rarely
after quibus. Position after the relative is found here and there also
in the case of other Prepositions, but principally in early Latin or the
poets, as follows : ab, ad (also in CICERO), ex, in, per, post (after hunc,
C., Tusc., II. 6, 15), and pr5.
Dissyllabic Prepositions are postponed more often, but CICERO re-
stricts this to pronouns, with the following Prepositions : ante, circa,
contra, inter, penes, propter, sine, ultra. CAESAR postpones intra also.
Tenus, as far as, and versus, -ward, always follow.
2. When the substantive has an attribute the Preposition may come
between ; hanc igitur ob causam (C., Br. , 24 ,94), for this reason, therefore.
3. The Preposition may be separated from its case by an attributive
adjective or its equivalent, or other modifier of the case : post vero Sullae
victoriam, but after Sulla's victory ; ad beats vlvendum, for living hap-
pily. But model prose usually avoids separating the Preposition by
more than a word or two. The poets have no scruples.
NOTES.— 1. A peculiarity of poetry, LIVT, and later prose is the post-position of both
Preposition and attribute : metQ in magno, L., ix. 37, 11 ; in great fear.
2. Especially to be noted is the position of per, through (by), in adjurations: Lydia
die per omn6s tS decs oro, H., 0., i. 8, 1 ; Lydia, tell, by all the gods, I pray thee.
Per ego tS deos oro, TER., And., 834 ; I pray thee, by the gods.
3. Between the Preposition and its case are often inserted the enclitics que, ne, ve ;
and after ante, post, and praeter the conjunctions autem, enim, quidem, tamen,
vSr5, occur, but not frequently. The first word in the combinations et— et, aut— aut,
268 PREPOSITIONS.
simul— simul, vel— vel, sometimes follows the Preposition ; cum et diur no et noc-
turno metii, C., Tusc., \. 23, 66.
414. Repetition and Omission of the Preposition. — "With
different words which stand in the same connection, the Prep-
osition is repeated, when the Preposition is emphatic, or the
individual words are to be distinguished ; so regularly after
aut — ant, et — et, nee — nee, vel — vel, non modo — sed etiam,
sed, nisi, quam, and in comparative clauses with ut. Other-
wise it is omitted ; so always with que.
Et ex urbe et ex agris, C., Cat., n. 10, 21 ; both from (the) city and
from (the) country. DS honore aut dS dignitate contendimus, C., Tusc.,
in. 21, 50 ; we are striving about office, or about position.
REMARKS. — i. When a relative follows in the same construction as its
antecedent, the Preposition is usually omitted.
(Cim5n) incidit in eandem invidiam (in) quam pater suus, NEP., v. 3, 1;
Cimon fell into the same disrepute into which his father had fallen.
2. So in questions : Ante tempus morl miserum. Quod tandem tempus 1
C., Tusc., I. 39, 93 ; a hard case 'tis, to die before the time. (Before}
what time, pray ?
3. After quasi, tamquam, sicut, the Preposition is more often inserted.
Bus ex urbe tamquam 6 vinclis evolaverunt, Cf. C., Or., n. 6, 22 ; they
sped from the city to the country as if from a jail.
4. Two Prepositions are rarely used with the same word. Either the
word is repeated, a form of is used, or one Prep, turned into an adverb :
Pr5 Sclpi5ne et adversus Sclpionem, for and against Scipio. Ante pu-
gnam et post earn, before and after the battle. Et in corpore et extra [sunt]
quaedam bona, C., Fin., H. 21, 68. But intrg extraque munltiOnes, CAES.,
B.C., in. 72,2.
415. As adverbs without a case are used :
Ad, about, with numerals in CAESAR, LIVY, and later ; adversus, to
meet, especially in PLAUTUS and TERENCE ; ante and post of Time (403,
N. 4) ; contra, opposite, on the other hand ; circa, round about, and
circum (rare) ; prae, forward, in PLAUTUS and TERENCE ; prope, near,
and propter (rare) ; ifixtS, near by (rare) ; intra, inside (post-classical) ;
extra, outside; Infra, below; supra, above; subter, beneath, and super,
above, both rare ; citra, on this side ; ultra, beyond ; coram, in the pres-
ence of; clam, secretly.
I.— Prepositions Construed with the Accusative.
416. The Prepositions construed with the Accusative are :
Ad, adversus, ante, apud, circa, circum, circiter, cis, citra,
PKEPOSITION'S. 269
clam, contra, erga, extra, Infra, inter, intra, iuxta, ob, penes,
per, post (pone), praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra,
trans, ultra, usque, versus.
1. Ad. Of Motion Whither, to, up to. Of Direction, towards (ad ori-
.entem). Of Respect, for, with regard to (ad has re's perspicax) ; found
first in TERENCE. Of Manner, after, according to (ad hunc modum) ;
colloquial (in CICERO'S speeches only quern ad modum). Of Place, at
(= apud), colloquial (ad montem, C., Fam., xv. 2, 2) and legal (ad forum,
ad tS), rare in CICERO'S speeches. Of Time, at, refers only to future,
and gives either a point (ad vesperum, at evening), an interval (ad
paucSs dies, a few days hence), or an approaching time, towards.
With Numerals, about. Of Purpose, for (castra hostl ad praedam re-
linquunt, L., in. 63, 4). Also in phrases. Post-Ciceronian Latin ex-
tended the sphere of ad, and colloquially it was often a substitute for
the Dative.
2. Adversus (-urn), [i.e., turned to]. Towards, over against, against.
Rare in early Latin and in CAESAR and SALLUST. In the sense, over
against, it is found first in LIVY. In the transferred sense, towards, it
expresses usually hostile disposition, but begins to indicate friendly
disposition in CICERO. Exadversus (-um) is found occasionally, begin-
ning with CICERO, and is always local.
3. Ante [i.e., over against, facing]. Of Place Where, before. Of
Place Whither, before ; rarely (not in CICERO). Of Time, before ; the
most frequent use. Of Degree, before ; not in CICERO or CAESAR.
4. Apud is used chiefly of Persons. At the house of (characteristic
locality). In the presence of (iiidicem). In the writings of (PlatSnem).
In the view of. Of Place, at, in (= in) ; common in comedy (apud
vfllam) ; rare elsewhere, especially with proper names, where ad was
preferred, except by SALLUST. In phrases like apud s8 esse, to be in
one's senses.
5. Circa (circum). Around. Circum is exclusively local (except
once in VITRUVIUS, where it is temporal). Circa in the local sense is
found first in CICERO. In the meaning about, of Time or Number,
it is found first in HORACE. So, too, in the transferred sense of the
sphere of mental action : circa virentls est animus campos, H., 0., 11.
5,5.
6. Circiter. Of Place, about ; once in PLAUTUS. Usually of Time,
about, especially with numerals ; but the prepositional usage is on the
whole small.
7. Cis, citra. This side, short of. Of Place ; cis found first in
VARRO, citra in CICERO. Cis is occasionally temporal in PLAUTUS, SAL-
LUST, OVID. Citra, of Time, within, this side of; found first in OVID.
Without (stopping short of) ; found first in LIVY, then in OVID, and
2JO PREPOSITIONS.
the post- Augustan prose writers. In C., Or., i8,50, citra may be ren-
AenA further tool* ; i.e., nearer the beginning.
8. Clam. Secretly. With Aec. in early Latin, in the b. Hisp., and
in the Jurists. With Abl. in CAESAR (B.C., 11.32, 8), and in the b.
Afr., n,4 (both passages disputed). Clanculum with Ace., only in
TERENCE.
9. Contra. Opposite to, over against, opposed to, against. It appears
as a Preposition first in the classical period, and is used both in local
and transferred senses. In the latter case the force is predominantly
hostile.
10. Erga. Opposite, towards. Of Place ; very rarely, in early and
late Latin. Usually in the transferred sense of friendly relations.
The hostile sense is occasional in comedy, NEPOS, and later writers.
Erga is used always of Persons or personified Things until the time of
TACITUS.
n. Extra. Without, outside of, beside. It is used of local and trans-
ferred relations ; rarely in the sense of sine (TAC., H., i. 49) ; occasion-
ally in sense of praeter, except.
12. Infra. Beneath, lower down. Of Space ; more frequently in
classical Latin, of Rank or Grade ; Temporal but once (C., Br., 10, 40).
It occurs but rarely in later Latin, and is cited only onc.e from early
Latin (TEE., Eun., 489).
13. Inter. Between. Of Place Where, rarely of Place Whither.
Colloquial were phrases like inter viam (vias), on the road, inter nos,
between ourselves. Inter paucos, preeminently, is post-classical. Of
Time, during ; at all periods, but in CICERO principally in the Let-
ters.
14. Intra. Within. Of Local and Temporal (not in CICERO) rela-
tions. The usage in transferred relations is post-classical, and mainly
poetical.
15. luzta [i.e., adjoining]. Hard by, near, next to. It appears as
a Preposition first in VARRO, then in CAESAR, but not in CICERO. It is
used locally until LIVY, who employs it also in transferred senses of
Time, Order, etc.
16. Ob [i.e., over against, opposite to]. Right before. Of Place
occasionally at all periods (not in CAESAR, LIVY, CURTIUS, TACITUS).
Of Cause, for ; found in early Latin (not with personal pronouns in
PLAUTUS), in classical and post-classical Latin in increasing propor-
tion. CAESAR uses it only in formulae with rem (res) and causam.
CICERO and CAESAR do not use ob id or ob ea, which, found in early
Latin, reappear in SALLUST. Ob has almost completely supplanted
propter in TACITUS. With the substantive and participle (ob defensum
Capitolium) ob is found first in LIVY.
17. Penes. With = in the hands of ; of Persons. Applied to
PKEPOSITIONS. 271
Things, it is found in poetry first in HORACE ; in prose first in TACITUS.
It is found wholly with esse until later Latin.
1 8. Per. Of Space, through ; of Time, during ; of Cause, owing to ;
of Instrument, by (both persons and things) ; of Manner, by, in. It
is used phraseologically in oaths, by; also with persons (sometimes
things), as per me licet, as far as I am concerned you may. Per = ab
of Agent is found only in late Latin.
19. P5ne. Behind, only in Local relations ; it is most frequent in
PLAUTUS, occurs but once in CICERO, never in CAESAR or HORACE, and
is rare in general.
20. Post. Of Place, behind; rare, but in good usage. Of Time,
after. Of Rank, subordinate to ; in SALLUST, poets, and late prose.
21. Praeter. Of Place, in front of, on before, past. In a transferred
sense, except ; contrary to (oplni5nem and the like). Of Rank, beyond
(praeter omngs is cited only from PLAUTUS and HORACE ; usually praeter
cSteros).
22. Prope. Of Place, near ; found first in the classical period. It
sometimes has the constructions of adjectives of Nearness. Of Time,
near; very rare and post-classical, as LIVY, SUETONIUS. Propius is
found first in CAESAR as a preposition.
23. Propter. Of Place, near. Of Cause, on account of; very com-
mon in early and classical Latin, but avoided by many authors, notably
TACITUS. With substantive and participle it appears first in VARRO ;
then is common in LIVY, and later.
24. Secundum [i.e., following}. Of Place, along (lltus), close behind;
very rare (C., Fam., iv. 12, 1). Of Time, immediately after ; in early
Latin and CICERO, common in LIVY, but never in CAESAR, SALLUST,
TACITUS. Of Series, next to ; in PJLAUTUS and CICERO. Of Reference,
according to ; at all periods. Secus is ante-classical and rare.
25. Supra. Of Place, above, beyond ; so CICERO almost exclusively.
Of Time, beyond; very rare. Of Grade, above. Of Authority, in
charge of; VITRUVIUS and later.
26. Trans. On the other side, beyond, across ; only in Local relations.
27. Ultra. Of Space and Measure, on that side, beyond. Of Time ;
only in late Latin. The early form uls is very rare and in formulae, as,
Cis Tiberim et uls Tiberim. In late Latin ultra supplants praeter almost
wholly.
28. Usque, up to, is found once in TERENCE, several times in CICERO,
and occasionally later, with the Ace. of the name of a town. With
other names of localities it appears first in LIVY.
29. Versus, -ward. As a preposition it first appears in the classical
period and is found usually with names of Towns, and small Islands ;
with other words it is regularly combined with the prepositions ad (not
in CICERO) or in.
\
2/2 PEEPOSITIONS.
II. Prepositions Construed with the Ablative.
417. Prepositions construed with the Ablative are a (ab,
abs), absque, coram, cum, de, e (ex), prae, pro, sine, tenus;
rarely fine, palam, procul, simul.
i. A (ab, abs). Of Place Whence, from, especially of the point of
departure ; so in phrases, a tergo, a capite, etc. Of Cause, from (Ira) ;
beginning with LIVY. Of Agent, by. Of Remote Origin, from. Of
Time, from. Of Reference, according to, after. Of Specification, in
(doleo ab oculls) ; often with compound verbs.
frequent before 1, n, r, s, and i ( j) ; abs is found only before t6 and in the combination
absque. CICERO uses abs t§ in his early writings, but prefers a tS in his later ones.
2. Absque [i.e., off}. Without. Peculiar to early Latin, where it
is used in conditional sentences only. Occasionally in later Latin, as,
absque sententia (QuiNT., vn. 2, 44), for praeter sententiam.
3. Coram. Face to face with, in the presence of; it is used with Per-
sons only, and is found first in CICERO, and then in later writers, but in
general it is rare until the time of TACITUS, who uses it very often in
the Annals and always postpones.
4. Cum.. With; of Accompaniment in the widest sense. With
Abl. of Manner regularly when there is no attributive ; often when
there is one. Sometimes it is used of mutual action : orare cum, plead
with (PLAUTUS), etc.
5. D6. Of Place, down from, and then from; especially with com-
pounds of dS and ex. Of Source, from; with verbs of Receiving (actual
and mental). Of Origin; but mainly in poetry and later prose. Of
Object, concerning. Of Time; in phrases dS nocte, d6 die" (diem dS die,
day after day). Of the Whole from which a part is taken. Of Refer-
ence, according to (dS sententia). Of Material ; poetical and late.
6. £ (ex). Of Place, out of, from. Often in phraseological usages,
as ex parte, partly ; ex asse, and the like. With verbs of Receiving,
from. Of Time, from ; ex tempore is phraseological. Of Origin, from.
Of Reference, according to. Of Manner ; in many phrases, as ex
aequo, ex ordine. E is used before consonants only, ex before both
vowels and consonants.
7. Fine (or flnl). Up to ; found in PLAUTUS and CATO, then not un-
til very late Latin. With the Gen. it occurs in b. Afr. and in SALLUST,
Fr.; then not until OVID and very late Latin.
8. Palam, in the sense of coram, in the presence of, is found first in
HORACE and LIVY, and is rare.
PREPOSITIONS. 273
9. Prae. Of Place, in front of; with verbs of Motion only, in clas-
sical Latin. In early Latin in the phrase prae manu, at hand. Of the
Preventive Cause, for ; with negatives only, in and after the classical
period ; in early Latin, also in positive sentences. Of Comparison, in
comparison with ; occasionally at all periods.
10. Pro. Of Place, before; not in early Latin, but found first in
the classical period, where it is confined to certain combinations, as
pro rostris, castrls, aede, vallo, etc., and means before and on. In behalf
of; not cited for early Latin. Instead of; very common at all periods.
In proportion to ; at all periods. Quam pr5 ; found first in LIVY.
11. Procul, far from, is poetical, and begins in prose with LIVY. In
classical Latin prose always with ab.
12. Simul, in the sense of cum, belongs to poetry and TACITUS (Ann.,
in. 64).
13. Sine, without, is opposed to cum.
14. Tenus, to the extent of. Of Space (actual and transferred), as
far as. It is found occasionally with the Gen., but almost wholly
with PI., and perhaps but once in CICERO (Arat., 83) ; otherwise it be-
longs to poetry, making its first appearance in prose in CICERO (Dei.,
13, 36) and LIVY. It occurs with the Ace. in late Latin. Tenus is al-
ways postponed.
III. Prepositions Construed with the Accusative
and Ablative.
418. Prepositions construed with the Accusative and Ab-
lative are in, sub, subter, super.
1. In (the forms endo, indu, are early and rare), (a) With Accusative :
Of Place, into, into the midst of. Of Disposition and Direction,
towards. Of Time, into (multam noctem), for (diem, mult&s annos, poste-
rum). Of Purpose or Destination, for ; mostly post-classical. Of Man-
ner, in, after. Phraseologically with neuter adjectives : in dsterius, for
the worse ; but mainly post-classical. With Distributives, to, among.
(b) With Ablative : Of Place, in, on. Of Time, within. Of Refer-
ence, in the case of, in regard to, in the matter of. Of Condition, in
(armls). In many phrases, especially with neuter adjectives, in incerto,
dubio, integro, ambiguo, etc.
2. Sub. (a) With Accusative : Of Place Whither, under. Of Time
Approaching, about (noctem, vesperum) ; just Past, immediately after.
Of Condition, under (sub potestatem redigi).
(b) With Ablative : Of Place Where, under; also in phrases, sub
armls, etc. Of Time When, about ; rare, and first in CAESAR. Of Posi-
tion, under (rege, iudice, etc.). Of Condition, under (ea condicione) ; first
in LIVY.
18
2/4 INFINITIVE.
3. Subter, (a) With Accusative ; rare, and locally equal to sub.
(6) With the Ablative ; more rare and almost wholly poetical (CATUL-
LUS and VERGIL). Cf. C., Tusc.,\. i, 4, which may be Ace. Subtus
occurs only in VITR., iv. 2, 5, and then with the Accusative.
4. Super, (a) With Accusative but once before the classical time :
Of Place, over, above. Of Time, during ; found first in PLINY, Epp.
Metaphorically of Degree, beyond (super modum) ; post-classical.
(b) With the Ablative : Of Space, above. Of Time, during (not
until the Augustan poets). Metaphorically = praeter ; very rare :
= de, concerning ; colloquial ; hence in PLAUTUS, CATO, CICERO'S Let-
ters (ad Alt.), SALLUST, HORACE, LIVY; but uncommon.
INFINITIVE.
The Infinitive as a Substantive.
419. The Infinitive is the substantive form of the verb.
. NOTE.— The Infinitive differs from a verbal substantive in that it retains the adver-
bial attribute, the designations of voice and time, and the regimen of the verb :
Amare, to love ; valdS amare, to love hugely ; amarl, to be loved ; amavisse, to
have loved ; amare aliquem, to love a man ; nocere alicui, to hurt a man.
But the great claim of the Infinitive to be considered a verb lies in the involution of
predicate and subject. Like the finite verb, the Infinitive involves predicate and sub-
ject ; but the subj. is indefinite and the predication is dependent.
420. The Infinitive, when it stands alone, involves an in-
definite Accusative Subject, and the Predicate of that Sub-
ject is, of course, in the Accusative Case.
Begem esse, to be king. Bonum esse, to be good. Compare quid stultius
quam aliquem eo sibl placere quod ipse non fecit, SEN., E.M., 74, 17 ; what
is more foolish than for a man to (that a man should) pride himself on
what he has not done himself.
t So in the paradigm of the verb :
Amaturum esse, to be about to love.
NOTE.— On the Nom. with the Inf. by Attraction, see 528.
In consequence of this double nature, the Infinitive may be used as
a substantive or as a verb.
421. The Infinitive, as a substantive, is used regularly in
two cases only — Nominative and Accusative. In the other
cases its place is supplied by the Gerund and the Ablative
Supine.
NOTES.— 1. Traces of the original Dat. (or Loc.) nature of the Infinitive are still
apparent iii many constructions, which are, however, mostly poetical :
INFINITIVE. 275
(a) With verbs of Motion in early Latin and the later poets, when ut, ad with
Gerundive or Sup. is to be expected.
Abilt aedem vlsere Minervae, PL., 5., goo ; she went away to visit the temple
of Minerva. Semper in Oceanum mittit mS quaerere gemmas, PROP., n. (in.) 16
(8), 17 ; she is always sending me to the Ocean to look for (in quest of) pearls.
(b) With verbs of Giving, Kendering, and the like, in early Latin and the poets, where
the Ace. of the Gerundive is to be expected. Classical is the use of bibere only, in this
way. (The old form biber points to the effacement of the final sense of this Inf.)
lovi bibere ministrare, Cf. C., Tusc., i. 26. Quern virum aut he"roa lyra vel
acrl tibia sumes celebrare, Clio? H., 0., i. ia,l. Different, of course, are cases
like dl tibi posse tuos tribuant detendere semper, Ov., 2V., m. s,21, where posse
defenders is felt as potestatem dSfendendl.
(c) With many adjectives where the Slip, in u, or some construction of Purpose, is to
be expected.
In early Latin the adjectives are paratus, consugtus, dSfessuS. But this usage is
widely extended by the Augustan poets VERGIL and HORACE, and later.
It is confined principally, however, to adjectives of capability, ability, necessity, etc.,
and adjectives like facilis (with act. as well as pass. Inf., first in PROP.), difficilis, and
the like : Eoma capl facilis, LUCAN, n. 656. Note the strange usage dissentire
manifSstus, TAC., Ann., n. 57, 4, and occasionally elsewhere.
2. The Inf. may take an adj. attribute, but hi classical prose this is limited to ip-
sum, hoc ipsnm, and totum hoc :
VIvere ipsum turpe est nobls, living itself is a disgrace to its. Quibusdam
tStum hoc displicet philosopharl (280, i, a).
The Infinitive as a Subject.
422. The Infinitive, as a Subject, is treated as a neuter
substantive.
Incipere multo est quam inpetrare facilius, PL., Poen., 974 ; beginning
is much easier (work) than winning. Miserum est deturbari fortGnls
omnibus, C. , Quinct. , 3 1, 95 ; it is wretched to find one's self turned rudely
out of all one's fortunes. Non tarn turpe fuit vincI quam contendisse de-
corum est, Ov., M., ix. 6 (280, 2, a).
NOTES.— 1. The use of the Inf. as a subj. grew out of its use as an obj., but the
original Dat. (Loc.) sense was lost to the consciousness just as the prepositional sense
of our own to is lost when our Inf. becomes a subj.; as in, to err is human, to forgive
divine. No Eoman felt turpe fuit vinci, as, there was disgrace in being beaten ;
bonum est legere was to him another bona est I5cti5 (see PRISCIAN, 408, 27).
2. The substantives used as predicates are not common in early Latin. Lubldo est
is confined to PLADTUS. Stultitia est, consilium est, and tempus est are universal.
CICERO introduces the not uncommon m5s est, and many others with est, as : cSn-
suStuclo (-inis), vitium, ius, fas, nefas, facinus, fatum, caput, res (CAESAR),
opus, munus, officium, onus, sapientia, and a few others. Still more are found
later. Many of these also take ut ; so officium always in comedy (except TER., And.,
331).
3. Neuter adjectives are used as predicates in great variety. Ciceronian are certius
(quam), consentaneum, falsum, incrSdibile, integrum, gloriosum, maius
(quam), mirum, novom, optimum, rectum, singulare, tritum, vgrlsimile,
v6rum. Most of them, however, but once. Some of these also take ut, but not often
in good prose.
276 INFINITIVE.
4. In early Latin many impersonal verbs are used as predicates. Classical Latin
retains most of them, but drops condecet, dispudet, subolet, and adds some, such
as paenitet, dedecet, displicet, prodest, obest, attinet. Others come in later.
Some, such as oportet, also take tit or the simple Snbjv. Noteworthy is est, it is pos-
sible, found first in VABRO and LUCB., then not till VERG. and Hon., and never common.
5. Certain abstract phrases, whose meanings are akin to the words already men-
tioned, take the Inf. as a subject. So especially predicate Genitives, as COnsuStudinis
and m5ris ; or combinations like quid negotil, nihil negotil est ; predicate Datives
such as cord! est, curae est, both unclassical ; or phrases, as operae pretitun, in
animo esse, in mentem venire, of which the last two were introduced by CICERO.
The Infinitive as an Object.
423. i. The Infinitive is used as the Object of Verbs of
Creation, commonly known as Auxiliary Verbs.
These Verbs help the Infinitive into existence.
2. Such verbs denote Will, Power, Duty, Habit, Inclination, Re-
solve, Continuance, End, and the like, with their opposites.
Emorl cupio, TER., Heaut., 971 ; I want to die. [Cato] esse quam vidSrl
bonus malsbat, S., C., 54, 5 ; Cato preferred being (good) to seeming
good. Sed precor ut possim tiitius esse miser, Ov., Tr., v. 2, 78 ; but 1
pray that I may be more safely wretched. Vincere scis, Hannibal ; victS-
ria utl nescls, L., xxii. 51 ; how to win victory, you know, Hannibal;
hoiv to make use of victory, you know not. QuI mori didicit, servlre d6-
didicit, SEN., E.M., 26, 10 ; he who has learned to die has unlearned to
be a slave. Maledictis dSterrgre ng scribat parat, TER., Ph., 3 ; he is
preparing (trying) to frighten (him) from writing, by abuse. QuI men-
tlrl solet, peierare c5nsu6vit, C., Rose. Com., 16, 46 ; he who is wont to lie
is accustomed to swear falsely. Vulnera quae ffccit dSbuit ipse patl, Ov.,
Am., n. 3, 4 ; the wounds he gave he should himself have suffered.
Vereor laudare praesentem, C., N.D., i. 21, 58 ; I feel a delicacy about
praising a man to his face. Religionum animum n5dls exsolvere pergo,
LUCR., i. 932; I go onto loose the spirit from the bonds of superstitious
creeds. Tua quod nil refert, percontarl desinas, TER., Hec., 810 ; cease to
inquire what is not to your advantage.
So habeo, / have (it in my power).
Tantum habeo pollicerl me tibi cumulate satisfacturum, C., Fam., I. 5 A.
3 ; so much I can promise, that I will give you abundant satisfaction.
NOTES.— 1. The original force of the Inf. is, in most of these constructions, hard to
determine, and was certainly not felt by the Romans themselves. In many cases the
Inf. seems to have been used because the governing word or phrase was felt to be more
or less equivalent to a Verb of Creation.
2. The principal verbs, construed thus with the Inf., are as follows :
Will : velle, malle, nolle, cupere, optare (rare, except in passive), petere, pSstu-
lare, avBre, audfire, desiderare (first in Cic.), praegestlre, gestlre, ardSre,
INFINITIVE. 277
metuere (anto-class.), verSrl, tim6re, formidare (ante-class.), reformldare, hor-
rgre, horrgscere, hortarl and compounds, monSre and compounds, suadere (first
in Cic.), persuadgre, iubere, imperare, praecipere, cogere, permittere (once in
Cic., then later), concgdere (ttrst in Cic.), curare (not in CAES., SALL., LIVY), vetare,
recusare (first in Cic.), mittere, omittere, intermittere, cunctari, cgssare,
morari, dubitare, gravari, prohibere, impedire, deterrere.
Power : posse, quire, nequire, sustingre (first in Cic.), valSre (first in Cic.),
pollgre (first in Cic.), habgre (rare, except in Cic.), scire, nescire.
Duty : dgbgre, necesse habeo.
Habit : assugscere, assugfacere (first in Cic.), cSnsugscere, solere.
Inclination : conarl (only with Inf.), studSre, contendere, intendere (CAES.),
laborare (always with neg. in Cic.), mollrl (rare), aggredl, ingredl, adorlrl, nltl
(first in CAES.), enltl (ante-class, and post-class.), quaerere (first in Cic.), temptare
(first in HIBTIUS).
fiesolve .- cogitare, meditarl, meminl (mostly poet.), parare, statuere (first in
Cic.), cSnstituere (first in TER.), dgcernere (not class, in pass.), iudicare (first in
Cic.), destinare (first in CAES.), certum est, dellberatum est, propositum est
(first in Cic.).
Continuance : stare (first in Cic.), instare, perstare (once in Cic., then late), per-
severare (first in Cic.), properare (only word used in early Latin), festlnare (first in
Cic.), maturare (first in Cic.).
Beginning and End : coepl, incipere (first in Cic.), exSrdiri, pergere, dgsinere.
Poets are free in using the Inf. after other verbs.
3. Notice that coepl, / have begun, and dSsino, / cease, are used in Pf . pass, with
passive Infinitives, in early Latin, CICERO, CAESAR, always ; later the construction
varies, and TACITUS does not observe the rule.
Bello Ath6ni6ns6s undique premi sunt coeptl, NEP., xin. 3, 1 ; the Athenians
began to feel the pressure of war on (from) all sides. Vetergs orationgs legl sunt
dgsitae, C., Sr., 32, 123 ; the old speeches have ceased to be read.
When the passives are really reflexives or neuter, the active forms may be used.
4. Verbs of Will and Desire take ut as well as the Infinitive. So regularly opt5, 1
choose, in classical prose.
5. Verbs which denote Hope, Promise, and Threat are treated as verbs of Saying and
Thinking (530), but also occasionally as in English :
Spgrant sS maximum fructum esse captures, C., Lad., 21, 79 ; they hope that
they will derive great advantage. Subrupturum pallam promisit tibl, PL., Asin.,
930 ; he promised to steal the mantle from you.
6. Doceo, I teach, iubeO, Ibid, vetS, I forbid, sin5, 1 let, take the Inf. as a Second
Accusative (339) :
(Dionysius) ne collum tonsori committeret tondere filias suas docuit, C.,
Tusc., v. 20, 58 ; Dionysius, to keep from trusting his neck to a barber, taught his
daughters to shave (taught them shaving). Ipse iubet mortis t6 meminisse deus,
MART., n. 59 (376). Vitae summa brevis spem n5s vetat inclioare longam, H.,
0., i. 4, 15 ; life's brief sum forbids us open (a) long (account with) hope. Neu sinas
Mgdos equitare inultos, H., O., i. 2, 51 ; nor let the Median ride and ride unpunished.
The Infinitive as a Predicate.
424. The Infinitive, as a verbal substantive, may be used
as a Predicate after the copula esse, to be, and the like.
Docto hominl et gruditS vlvere est c5gitare, C., Tusc., v. 38, 111 ; to a
learned and cultivated man to live is to think.
278 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.
425. The other cases of the Infinitive are supplied by the
Gerund. With Prepositions, the Gerund, and not the Infin-
itive, is employed.
N. Legere difficile est, reading (to read) is hard to do.
G. Ars legend!, the art of reading.
Puer studiosus est legend!, the boy is zealous of reading.
D. Puer operani dat legendo, the boy devotes himself to reading.
Ac. Puer cupit legere, the boy is desirous to read.
Puer prCpgnsus est ad legendum, the boy has a bent toward reading.
AB. Puer dlscit legendo, the boy learns by reading.
NOTE.— Of course the Inf. may be quoted as an abstract notion, a form of the verb :
Multum interest inter " dare " et " accipere," SEN., Sen., 5, 10 ; there is a vast
difference between "Give" and "Receive."
426. As a verbal form, the Gerund, like the Infinitive,
takes the same case as the verb.
Homines ad deos nulla re propius accedunt, quam salutem hominibus
dando. C., Lig., 12, 38 ; men draw nearer to the gods by nothing so
much as by bringing deliverance to their fellow-men.
NOTES.— 1. The Gerund is the substantive of the Gerundive (251, N. 1). The most
plausible theory connects the forms in -ndu- with those in -nt- (Pr. Part, active) as being
verbal nouns originally without any distinction of voice. The signification of necessity
comes mainly from the use as a predicate, i.e., through the characteristic idea. Thus,
he who is being loved, implies he who is of a character to be loved (qui amStur), and
then he who should be loved.
The Gerundive is passive : the Gerund, like other verbal nouns (363), is theoretically
active or passive, according to the point of view. Practically, however, the passive
signification of the Gerund is rare.
lugurtha ad imperanduni (= ut el imperarStur, perhaps an old military form
ula) Tisidium vocabatur, Of. 8., lug., 62, 8.
2. Gerundive and Pf . Part, passive are often translated alike ; but in the one case the
action is progressive or prospective, in the other it is completed.
Caesare interficiendo Brutus et Cassius patriae libertatem restituere co-
nat! sunt ; by the murder of Caesar (by murdering Caesar), Brutus and Cassius
endeavoured to restore their country's freedom to her. Caesare interfecto, Brutus
et Cassius patriae libertatem non restituSrunt ; by murdering Caesar, Brutus
and Cassius did not restore their country's freedom to her.
427. Gerundive for Gerund. — Instead of the Gerund,
with an Accusative Object, the object is generally put in the
case of the Gerund, with the Gerundive as an Attribute.
G. Placandl Del, of appeasing God.
D. PlacandS De6, for appeasing God.
AB. Placando Deo, by appeasing God.
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 279
In model prose this construction is invariably employed with Prep-
ositions.
Ad placandos De6s, for appeasing the gods (C., Cat., m. 8, 20).
In placandls Dils, in appeasing the gods.
NOTES. — 1. It is impossible to make a distinction between the Gerund and the Ge-
rundive form. They are often used side by side, where there can be no difference (L.,
xxi. 5, 5 ; xxv. 40, 6 ; xxvm. 37, 1 ; xxxi. 26, 6). The preference for the Gerundive is
of a piece with the use of the Pf. Part. pass, in preference to an Abstract Substantive
(360, B. 2).
2. The impersonal Gerundive is found with an Ace. obj. once in PLAUTUS (agitan-
dumst vigilias, Trin., 869), and occasionally elsewhere in early Latin (principally
VAKBO) ; very rarely in CICERO and for special reasons (Cat. M., 2, 6) ; here and there
later (not in CAESAR, HORACE, OVID, and, perhaps, LIVT).
Aeternas quoniam poenas in morte timendumst, LUCR., i. m ; since we must
fear eternal punishments in death.
3. Neuter adjectives and pronouns are not attracted : aliquid faciendi ratio,
C., Inv., i. 25, 36 ; method of doing something. Cupiditas plura habendi, greed for
having more. But when the neuter adjective has become a substantive (204, N. 2), the
Gerundive form may be used : cupiditas v5rl videndl, C., Fin., n. 14, 46 ; the desire
of seeing the truth.
4. The Gerundive with personal construction can be formed only from Transitive
Verbs, like other passives (217). Hence the impersonal form most be used for all verbs
that do not take the Ace., but with such verbs prepositions are rarely found.
Ad nSn parendum senatui, L., XLII. 9 ; for not obeying the senate.
5. But the Gerundives from utor, fruor , fungor , potior , vescor (407) have the per-
sonal construction, but usually only in the oblique cases (C., Fin., 1. 1, 3, is an excep-
tion), as a remnant of then- original usage. The poets and later prose writers use still
more forms in the same way, as laetandus, dolendus, medendus, paenitendus, etc.
CICERO also shows single instances of glSriandus, disserendus, respondendus.
6. The use of the Nom. of the Gerundive follows the ordinary rules of the Nomina
tive.
Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive.
428. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used
chiefly after substantives and adjectives which require a com-
plement :
Sapientia ars Vivendi putanda est, C., Fin., I. 13, 42 ; philosophy is to
be considered the art of living. Et propter vltam vlvendl perdere causas,
Juv. , vin. 84 ; and on account of life, to lose the reasons for living. Eau •
caque garrulitas studiumque immane loquendl, Ov., M., v. 678 ; and hoarse
chattiness, and a monstrous love of talking. Triste est nomen ipsum ca-
rendi, C., Tusc., i. 36, 87; dismal is the mere word " carSre " (go without).
Non est placandi spSs mini nulla Dei, Ov., Tr., v. 8, 22 ; I am not with-
out hope of appeasing God. Ignorant cupidl maledicendi plus invidiam
quam convlcium posse, QUINT., vi. 2, 16 ; those who are eager to abuse
know not that envy has more power than billingsgate. (Titus) equitandi
peritisshnus fuit, SUET., Tit., 3 ; Titus was exceedingly skilful in rid-
ing. Neuter sui pretegendi corporis memor (erat), L., n. 6, 9 ; neither
28O GEKUND AND GERUNDIVE.
thought of shielding his own body. QuI hie mos obsidendi vias et viros
alienos appellandi ? L., xxxiv. 2, 9 ; what sort of way is this of blocking
up the streets and calling upon other women's husbands ? Summa 61Q-
dendi occasiost mihi nunc sengs, TER., Ph., 885; I have a tip-top chance
to fool the old chaps now.
REMARKS. — i. As mel, tul, sui, nostrl, vestrl, are, in their origin,
neuter singulars, from meum, my being, tuum, thy being, suum, one's
being, etc., the Gerundive is put in the same form : conservandl sui, of
preserving themselves; vestrl adhortandi, of exhorting you; and no
regard is had to number or gender.
Copia placandl sit modo parva tul, Ov., Her., 20, 74 ; let (me) only have
a slight chance of trying to appease you (feminine).
2. The Gen. of the Gerund and Gerundive is used very commonly
with causa, less often with gratia, and rarely with (antiquated) erg5,
on account of, to express Design : Dissimulandi causa in senatum venit,
S., C., 31, 52; he came into the senate for the purpose of dissimulation.
The Gen. alone in this final sense is found once in TERENCE, several
times in SALLUST, occasionally later, especially in TACITUS.
(Lepidus arma) c6pit llbertatis subvortundae, S., Phil.Fr., 10; Lepidus
took up arms as a matter of (for the purpose of) subverting freedom.
More commonly ad, rarely ob. See 432.
Esse with this Gen. may be translated by serve to ; this is occasional
in CICERO ; see 366, 429, i.
Omnia discriruina talia concordiae minuendae [suntj, L., xxxiv. 54, 5 ;
all such distinctions are matters of (belong to) the diminishing of con-
cord (serve to diminish concord). Compare CAES., B. G., v. 8, 6: [naves]
quas sui quisque commodl fScerat, ships which each one had (had) made
(as a matter) of personal convenience.
NOTES.— 1. In early Latin, in CICERO (early works, Philippics and philosophical
writings), then in later authors, we find occasionally a Gen. Sing, of the Gerund, fol-
lowed by a substantive in the Plural. Here it is better to conceive the second Gen. as
objectively dependent upon the Gerund form.
Agitur utrum Antonio facultas dStur agrorum suis latronibus condo-
nandl, C., Ph., v. 3, 6 ; the question is whether Antony shall receive the power of giving
away (of) lands to his pet highwaymen.
2. Fas est, nefas est, ius est, fatum est, copia est, ratio est, consilium est,
consilium capere, consilium inlre, aiffl a few others, have often the Inf. where the
Gerund might be expected. Sometimes there is a difference in meaning ; thus tem-
pus, with Gerund, the proper time (season), with Inf., high time.
The poets and later prose writers extend this usage of the Infinitive.
3. Another peculiarity of the poets is the construction of the adj. or subst. like the
cognate verb with the Inf., instead of with the Gen. of the Gerund. (At) s6ciira qui6s
et nescia fallere (= quae nesciat fallere) vita, V., G., 11.467 ; quiet without a
care, and a life that knoweth not how to disappoint (ignorant of disappointment).
Later prose is more careful hi this matter.
4. The Gen. of Gerund, depending upon a verb, is rare and Tacitean (Ann., n. 43).
TACITVS also uses the appositional Gerund with a substantival neuter (Ann., xin. 26).
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 28l
5. Some substantives, like auctor, dux, may have a Dat. instead of a Gen.; Liv., i.
23 : m@ AlbanI gerendo bello ducem creavgre.
Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive.
429. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used
chiefly after words that denote Fitness and Function.
1. The usage is rare in classical Latin, and begins with a few verbs
and phrases : esse (= parem esse), to be equal to ; praeesse and praeficere,
to be (put) in charge of; studere and operam addere, laborem impertire, to
give one's attention to; then it is used with a few substantives and adjec-
tives to give the object for which, and with names of Boards.
Solvendo clvitates n5n erant, Cf. C., Fam., in. 8, 2 ; the communities
were not equal to (ready for) payment'(were not solvent). [Sapiens] vires
suas novit, scit se esse oneri ferendo, SEN., E.M., 71, 26 ; the wise man is
acquainted with his own strength ; he knows that he is (equal) to bear-
ing the burden.
So comitia decemviris creandis (C., Leg.Agr., 2, 8) ; triumvir coloniis
deducendis (S., lug., 42) ; reliqua tempora demetendia fructibus accommo-
data sunt, C., Cat.M., 19, 70.
2. Classical Latin requires ad with the Ace., but from LIVY on the
use of this Dat. spreads, and it is found regularly after words which
imply Capacity and Adaptation. It is found also technically with verbs
of Decreeing and Appointing, to give the Purpose.
Aqua nitrosa utilis est bibendo, Cf. PLIN., N.H., xxxi. 32, 59; alkaline
water is good for drinking (to drink). Lignum aridum materia est idonea
eliciendis Ignibus, Cf. SEN., N.Q., n. 22, 1 ; dry wood is a fit substance
for striking fire (drawing out sparks). Eeferundae ego habeo linguam
natam gratiae, PL., Pers., 428 ; I have a tongue that's born for showing
thankfulness.
NOTES.— 1. In early Latin the use of this Dat. is very restricted, it being found
principally after stud6re ; operam dare, or sumere (both revived by LIVY) ; flnem
(or modum) facere ; and a few adjectival forms. Of the latter, CICERO uses only a<5-
commodatus, CAESAR only par.
2. Rare and unclassical is the Ace. in dependence upon a Dat. of the Gerund.
Epidicum operam quaerendo dabo, PL., Up., 605.
Accusative of the Gerundive.
430. The Gerundive is used in the Accusative of the Ob-
ject to be Effected, after such verbs as Giving and Taking,
Sending and Leaving, Letting, Contracting, and Undertak-
ing. (Factitive Predicate. )
Diviti hominl id aurum servandum dedit, PL., B., 338 ; he gave that
282 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.
gold to a rich man to keep. Conon murSs reficiendSs curat, NEP., ix. 4, 5;
Conon has the walls rebuilt. Patriam diripiendam reliquimus, C., Fam.,
xvi. 12, 1 ; u~e have left our country to be plundered. [Carvilius] aedem
faciendam locavit, L., x. 46, 14 ; Carvilius let the (contract of) building
the temple.
Of course, the passive form has the Nominative :
Filius PhilippI Demetrius ad patrem reducendus legatis datus est, L.,
xxxvi. 35, 13 ; the son of Philip, Demetrius, was given to the envoys to
be taken back to his father.
NOTES. — 1. Early Latin shows with this construction dare, conducere, locare,
rogare, petere, habere, propmare. Classical Latin gives up rogare, petere, propl-
nare, but adds others, as tradere, obicere, concgdere, committere, curare, relin-
quere, proponere. LIVT introduces suscipere. The use of ad in place of the simple
Ace. is not common.
[Caesar] oppidum ad diripiendum militibus concessit, CAES., />'. C., in. So, 6.
But ad is necessary in n6mini s6 ad docendum dabat, C., Br., 89, 306 ; he would
yield to no one for teaching, i.e., would accept no one as a pupil.
2. Habeo dicendum and the like for habeo dlcere, or, habeO quod dlcam,
belongs to later Latin (TAC., Dial., 37 ; Ann. iv. 40, etc.).
Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive.
431. The Ablative of the Gerund or Gerundive is used as
the Ablative of Means and Cause, seldom as the Ablative of
Manner or Circumstance.
Unus homo nobls cunctando restituit rem, ENNIUS (C., Cat.M.,4, 10);
one man by lingering raised our cause again. Hominis m8ns discendo
alitur et cSgitando, C., Off., I. 30, 105; the human mind is nourished by
learning and thinking. Plausum me5 nomine recitando dederunt, Cf.
C.,Att.,iv. i, 6 ; they clapped when my name was read. Exercendo
cottldiS milite hostem opperiSbatur, L., xxxiii. 3, 5; drilling the soldiers
daily he waited for the enemy.
NOTES.— i. The Abl. with adjectives is post-Ciceronian : dlgna stirps suscipi-
endo (instead of quae susciperet) patris imperio, TAC., Ann., xin. 14. So too with
verbs : continuando abstitit magistratu, L., ix. 34, 2.
2. The Abl. after a comparative is cited only from C., Off., 1. 15, 47.
3. In post- Augustan Latin, and occasionally earlier, we find the Abl. of the Gerund
paralleled by the Pr. participle : Bocchus, seu reputando (= reputans) . . . seu
admonitus, etc., S., lug., 103, 2.
Prepositions with the Gerund and Gerundive.
432. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive follows
the preposition ad, seldom ante, circa, in, inter, ob, and
propter. See 427.
Nulla r6s tantum ad dicendum prQficit quantum scrlpti5, C., Br. 24, 92;
SUPINE. 283
nothing is as profitable for speaking as writing . Atticus philosophorum
praeceptls ad vitam agendam non ad ostentationem utebatur, Of. NEP., xxv.
17, 3; Atticus made use of the precepts of philosophers for the conduct
of life, not for display. Inter spoliandum corpus hostis exsplravit, Cf.
L., ii. 20, 9; while in the act of stripping the body of the enemy he
gave up the ghost.
REMARK. — Ad is very common ; noteworthy is its use with verbs of
Hindering (palus Bomanos ad insequendum tardabat, CAES., B. G., vn.
26,2); with substantives to give the End (for); with adjectives of
Capacity and Adaptation (aptus, facilis, etc.). See 439, 2.
NOTES.— 1. Ante is very rare (L., Praef.,6; V., <?., 111.206). Circa and erga are
post- Augustan and very rare. In gives the End For Which, and is classical but not com-
mon. Inter is temporal, during, while, and is found rarely in early, more often hi
later, but not in classical prose. Ob is used first by CICERO (not by CABSAB), and is
rare. Propter occurs first in VALERIUS MAXIMUS ; super first in TACITUS.
2. On the Infinitive after a Preposition, see 435.
433. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive takes the
prepositions ab, de, ex, often in, but seldom pro. Post-classic
and rare are cum and super.
Prohibenda maxime est Ira in puniendo, C., Off., I. 25, 89; especially to
be forbidden is anger in punishing. [Brutus] in liber anda patria (= dum
llberat) est interfectus, C. , Cat.M., 20, 75 ; Brutus was slain in the effort
to free his country. Philosophi in ils libris ipsis quos scribunt dS con-
temnenda gloria sua nomina Inscrlbunt, C., Tusc., i. 15, 84 (385, B. i). Ex
discendo capiunt voluptatem, Cf. C., Fin., v. 18, 48 ; they receive pleasure
from learning.
NOTES. — 1. In with Abl. is sometimes almost equivalent to a Pr. participle : In
circumeundo exercitu animadvertit, b.Afr., 82.
S. Sine is used once hi VARRO, L.L., 6, 75, and in DOKATUS (TER., And., 391).
8. Even when the word and not the action is meant, the Gerund is the rule : Dis-
crepat a timendo confidere, C., Tusc., in. 7, 14 ; the Inf. in VARRO, L.L., 6, 50.
SUPINE.
434. The Supine is a verbal substantive, which appears
only in the Accusative and Ablative cases.
The Accusative Supine.
435. The Accusative Supine (Supine in -um) is used
chiefly after verbs of Motion, to express Design.
Galliae Iggati ad Caesarem gratulatum convSnSrunt, CAES., E.G., I. 30,
1 ; the commissioners of Gaul came to congratulate Caesar. Spectatum
284 SUPINE.
veniunt; veniunt spectentur ut ipsae, Ov., A. A., i. 99; they come to see
the show; they come to be themselves a show. (Galll galUnacei) cum sole
cunt cubitum, PLIN., N.H., x. 24, 46; cocks go to roost at sunset. Stultitia
est vSnatum ducere in vitas canes, Pi,., St., 139; 'tis foolishness to take
unwilling dogs a-hunting.
NOTES.— 1. Ire and venire are the most common verbs with the Supine, and they
form many phraseological usages, as : ire COCtum, cubitum, dormitum, pastum,
supplicatum, sessum, salutatum, etc. Similarly dare is found in phrases with
nuptum, venum, pessiun.
2. The Supine is very common in early Latin, less so in CICERO, comparatively rare
in CAESAR, frequent again in SALLUST and LIVY. Later Latin, and especially the poets,
show but few examples, as the final Inf. takes its place.
3. The Ace. Supine may take an object, but the construction is not very common :
(Hannibal) patriam dgfensum (more usual, ad defendendam patriam) revo-
catus (est), NEP., xxm. 6, 1 ; Hannibal was recalled to defend his country.
4. The Fut. Inf. passive is actually made up of the passive Inf. of Ire, to go, Irl (that
a movement is made, from Itur ; 208, 2), and the Supine :
Humor venit datum iri gladiatorgs, TER., Hec., 39 ; the rumour comes that glad-
iators (gladiatorial shows) are going to be given.
The consciousness of this is lost, as is shown by the Nom. (528).
Eeus damnatum Irl videbatur, QUINT., ix. 2, 88 ; the accused seemed to be about
to be condemned.
The Ablative Supine.
436. The Ablative Supine (Supine in -u) is used chiefly
with Adjectives, as the Ablative of the Point of View From
Which (397). It never takes an object.
Mlrabile dictu, wonderful (in the telling) to tell, visa, to behold.
Id dictu quani re" facilius est, L., xxxi. 38, 4 ; that is easier in the say-
ing than in the fact (easier said than done).
NOTES.— 1. CICERO and Lnnr are the most extensive users of this Supine ; CAESAR
has but two forms : factu and natu ; SALLUST but three ; CICERO uses twenty-four.
In early Latin and in the poets the usage is uncommon ; in later Latin it grows. Alto-
gether there are over one hundred Supines, but only about twenty-five Supines occur in
Abl. alone ; the most common are dictfi, to tell, factti, to do, audit U, to hear, visu,
to see, memoratu, relatu, tractatu ; then, less often, cSgnitu, to know, invents,
intellects, scitu, adspectu.
2. The adjectives generally denote Ease or Difficulty, Pleasure or Displeasure, Eight
or Wrong (fas and nefas). These adjectives are commonly used with Dative, and a
plausible theory views the Supine in u as an original Dative (nl).
3. Ad, with the Gerundive, is often used instead : Cibus facillimus ad conco-
quendum, C., Fin., u. 20, 64 ; food (that is) very easy to digest.
The Infinitive, facilis concoqul, is poetical. Common is facile concoquitur.
Other equivalents are active Infin., a verbal substantive, a Pf. Part. pass, (with
opus), or a relative clause (with dlgnusX
4. The use of the Abl. Supine with verbs is very rare.
(Vflicus) primus cubitu surgat, postremus cubitum eat, CATO, Ayr., 5, 5 ; the
steward must be the first to get out of bed, the last to go to bed. ObsOnatu reded, PL.?
Men., 377 ; I come back from marketing (imitated by STATIUS).
PARTICIPLE. 285
PARTICIPLE,
437. The Participle may be used as a substantive, but even
then generally retains something of its predicative nature.
Nihil est magnum somnianti, C., Div., n. 68, 141 ; nothing is great
to a dreamer (to a man, when he is dreaming). Kegia, crede mihi, r5s
est succurrere lapsis, Ov., Pont., n. 9, 11; it is a kingly thing, believeme,
(to run to catch those who have slipped,) to succour the fallen.
REMARK. — The Attribute of the Participle, employed as a substan-
tive, is generally in the adverbial form : rSctS facta, right actions ; facsts
dictum, a witty remark.
NOTES.— 1 . This use as a substantive is rare in classical prose, but more common in the
poets and in post-classical prose. In the Pr. Part., principally sapiens, adulescgns,
amans ; in the Pf . more often, but usually in the Plural ; doctl, the learned, victl,
the conquered. The first examples of Fut. Part, used as substantives are nuntiaturl
(CUBT., vn. 4, 32), peccaturos (TAG., Agr., 19).
2. The use of an attributive or predicative Pf. Part, with a substantive is a growth in
Latin. Early Latm shows very few cases, and those mostly with opus and usus, CATO
has post dlmissum bellum, and this innovation is extended by VAKRO, with propter.
CICERO is cautious, employing the prepositions ante, d6, in, post, praeter, but SAL-
LUST goes much farther, as the strange sentence inter haec parata atque dScrSta
(664, R. 2) indicates. LIVT and TACITUS are, however, characterised by these preposi-
tional uses more than any other authors. The use of a Part, in the Norn, in this way
is found first in LIVT.
438. The Participle, as an adjective, often modifies its
verbal nature, so as to be characteristic, or descriptive.
(EpamlnBndas) erat temporibus sapienter ute"ns, NEP., xv. 3, 1; Epa-
minondas was a man who made (to make) wise use of opportunities
(— is qul uteretur). Senectus est operosa et semper agens aliquid et
moliens, Cf. C., Cat.M., 8, 26; old age is busy, and always doing some-
thing and working.
REMARK. — Especial attention is called to the parallelism of the par-
ticiple or adjective with the relative and Subjunctive:
E6s parva dictu, sed quae studils in magnum certamen excSsserit, L.
xxxiv. i ; a small thing to mention, but one which, by the excitement of
the parties, terminated in a great contest. Munera non ad delicias muli-
ebres quaeslta nee quibus nova nupta comatur, TAC., Germ., 18.
NOTE.— The Put. Part, active is rarely used adjectively in classical Latin except
the forms futurus, venturus. The predicate use after verbs of Motion to express
Purpose is found first in CICERO (Verr., i. 21, 56), though very rarely, but becomes in-
creasingly common from LIVT'S time. LIVT is the first to use the Fut. Part, as an
adjective clause, a usage which also becomes common later.
(Maroboduus) misit legates ad Tiberium oraturos auxilia, TAC., Ann., n. 46;
Marbod sent commissioners to Tiberius, to beg for reinforcements. Scrvllius adest
286 ADVERB.
de tS sententiam laturus (perhaps due to est>, C., Verr., i. 21, 56. Bern ausus plus
famae habituram ((fiat was likely to have) quam fidei, L., n. 10, 11. (Dictator) ad
hostem ducit, ntillo loco, nisi quantum necessitas cogeret, fortunae s6 com-
missurus (loitti the intention of submitting), L., xxu. 12, 2.
ADVERB.
439. i. The Predicate may be qualified by an Adverb.
2. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs,
and sometimes substantives, when they express or imply ver-
bal or adjective relations.
Male vivit, he lives ill ; bene est, it is well ; fere" omnes, almost all ;
rutnia saepe, too often ; admodum adulSscSns, a mere youth ; late r6x (V. ,
A., i. 21), wide-ruling ; bis consul, twice consul; duo simul bella, two
simultaneous wars.
NOTES.— 1. The form of the Adverb does not admit of any further inflection, and
therefore the Adverb requires no rules of Syntax except as to its position.
2. With other adverbs and with adjectives, adverbs of degree only are allowable, to
which must be reckoned bene, e"gregi6, and (later) Inslgniter. Poetical are such
expressions as turpiter ater, splendid? mendax (H., A. P., 3 ; 0., m. n, 35). Male
as a negative is found with sanus only in CICEBO (Att., ix. 15, 5) ; other combinations
are poetical, or post-classical.
3. The translation for very varies at different periods ; multum is common in
PiuiUTtrs and in HORACE'S Satires and Epistles, rare elsewhere ; valdS is introduced by
CICEBO, but did not survive him, to any extent. Sane* is also frequent in CICERO, espe-
cially in the Letters ad Atttcum. CORHTFICIUS affected vehementer, and so do collo-
quial authors, as VITRUVIUS; fortiter comes in later; bene is occasional in PLAUTUS
and TERENCE, more common in CICERO ; oppido" is characteristic of early Latin, and
LIVT and the Archaiste ; admodum is Ciceronian, but adfatim comes later and is rare.
AbundS is rare before the tune of SALLUST. Nimium (nimio) belongs to early Latin,
as do impSnsS and impendio. Satis is common in the classical period, aud also
nimis, but mainly with negatives.
4. The Adverb as an attribute of substantives is rare. CICEBO shows turn, saepe,
quasi, tamquam. LIVT uses more.
440. Position of the Adverb. — Adverbs are commonly put
next to their verb, and before it when it ends the sentence,
and immediately before their adjective or adverb.
Iniuste facit, he acts unjustly. Admodum pulcher, handsome to a de-
gree, very handsome. Valde diligenter, very carefully.
REMARK. — Exceptions occur chiefly in rhetorical passages, in which
great stress is laid on the adverb, or in poetry:
[Iram] bene Ennius initium dixit insaniae, C., Tusc., rv. 23, 52 ; well
did Ennius call anger the beginning of madness. Vlxit dum vlxit bene
TEE., Hec., 461 ; he lived while he lived (and lived) well.
One class of Adverbs demands special notice— the Negatives.
ADVERB. 287
Negative Adverbs.
441. There are two original negatives in Latin, ne and
haud (haut, hau). From ne is derived non [n§-oinom (unum),
no-whit, not], Ne is used chiefly in compounds, or with the
Imperative and Optative Subjunctive. The old use appears
in ne — quidem. Non is used with the Indicative and Poten-
tial Subjunctive ; hand negatives the single word, and is used
mainly with adjectives and adverbs.
442. Non (the absolute not) is the regular Negative of the
Indicative and of the Potential Subjunctive.
Quern amat, araat ; quern non amat, non amat, PETR., 37 ; whom she
likes, she likes ; whom she does not like, she does not like.
N5n ausim, / should not venture.
REMARKS. — i. N5n, as the emphatic, specific negative, may negative
anything. (See 270, R. i.)
2. N5n is the rule in antitheses : N6n est vivere sed valgre vita, MART.,
vi. 70, 15 ; not living, but being well, is life.
NOTES. — 1. N5n in combination with adjectives and adverbs, and rarely with sub-
stantives and verbs, takes the place of negative in- or ne-. N5n arbitrabatur quod
efficeret aliquid posse esse n5n corpus (ao-u/naTo^), c., Ac., i. n, 39; Cat.M., 14, 47.
2. Other negative expressions are neutiquam, by no ineans ; nihil, nothing
(" Adam, with such counsel nothing swayed "). On niillus, see 317, 2, N. 2.
3. Nec = n5n is found in early Latin, here and there in VERG., LIVT, and TACITUS.
In classical Latin it ia retained in a few compounds, as : necoplnans, negotium, and
in legal phraseology.
443. Haud is the negative of the single word, and in model
prose is not common, being used chiefly with adjectives and
adverbs : hand quisquam, not any; hand magnus, not great ;
hand male, not badly.
NOTES.— 1. Hau is found only before consonants, and belongs to early Latin and
VERGIL. Haut (early) and haud are found indiscriminately before vowels.
2. Haud is very rarely or never found in Conditional, Concessive, Interrogative, Rela-
tive, and Infinitive sentences.
3. CAESAR uses haud but once, and then in the phrase haud sci5 an (457, 2).
CICERO says also haud dubito, haud ignore, haud erraver5, and a few others ;
and combines it also with adjectives and adverbs, but not when they are compounded
with negative particles, i.e., he does not say haud difficilis, and the like.
4. Hand with verbs is very common hi early Latin, and then again in Lrvr and
TACITUS. In antitheses it is i ot uncommon in comedy, but usually hi the second
member : inceptiSst amentiu? i haud amantium, TER., And. 218 ; the undertaking
if one of lunatics, not lovers.
5. A strengthened expression s haud quaquam.
288 ADVEKB.
444. i. Ne is the Negative of the Imperative and of the
Optative Subjunctive.
Tu n5 cede malls, V., A., vi. 95 ; yield not thou to misfortunes. Ne
transients Hiberum, L., xxi. 44, 6 ; do not cross the Ebro. NS vivam,
si sciS, C., Att., iv. 16, 8 ; may 1 cease to live (strike me dead), if I
know.
NOTES.— 1. On the negative with the Imperative, see 270, N.
2. NS as a general negative particle, = n5n, is found very rarely in early Latin,
mostly with forms of velle (ne par cunt, PL-, Most., 124, is disputed). Classical Latin
retains this only in n6— quidem, in compound nfiquaquam, and in a shortened form
in nefas, nego, neque, etc.
2. Ne is continued by neve or neu. See 260.
Ne illam vendas neu me per das hominem amantem, PL., P*., 322 : don't
sell her, and don't ruin me, a fellow in love.
445. Subdivision of the Negative. — A general negative
may be subdivided by neque — neque, as well as by aut — aut,
or strengthened by ne — quidem, not even.
Nihil umquam. neque Insolens neque gloriosum ex ore [Timoleontis] pro-
cSssit, NEP., xx. 4, 2 ; nothing insolent or boastful ever came out of the
mouth of Timoleon. Consciorum n6m5 aut latuit aut fugit, L., xxiv. 5,
14 ; of the accomplices no one either hid or fled. Numquam [Sclpionem]
nS minima quidem rS offendl, C.,Lael., 27, 103 ; I never wounded Scipio's
feelings, no, not even in the slightest matter.
(" I will give no thousand crowns neither. "— SHAKESPEARE.)
NOTE.— In the same way nego, / say no, is continued by neque — neque (nee—
nec) : Negant nee virtutgs nee vitia crSscere, C., Fin., in. 15, 48 ; they deny that
either virtues or vices increase (that there are any degrees in).
446. Negative Combinations. — In English, we say either
no one ever, or, never any one ; nothing ever, or, never any-
thing ; in Latin, the former turn is invariably used : nemo
mnquam, no one ever.
Verres nihil umquam fBcit sine aliquo quaestu, C., Verr., v. 5, 11 ; Ver-
res never did anything without some profit or other.
NOTES.— 1. No one yet is nondum quisquam ; no more, no longer, is iam n6n.
2. The resolution of a negative n6n ullus for nullus, n5n umquam for num-
quam, n5n scio for nesci5, is poetical, except for purposes of emphasis, or when the
first part of the resolved negative is combined with coordinating conjunction (480) :
N5n ulla tib! facta est iniiiria, Cf. C., Div. in Ca> ;., 18, 60.
3. Nem5 often equals ng quis: N6m5 dS n5 )Is unus excellat, C., Tusc.,\.
36, 105.
POSITION OF THE NEGATIVE. 289
447. Nego (/ say no, I deny), is commonly used instead of
dico non, / say — not.
Assem s6sS daturum negat, C., Quinct., j, 19 ; Tie says that lie will
not give a copper. Vel ai vel nega, Accius, 15&5 (R.) ; say yes or say no !
REMARK. — The positive (aio, I say) is sometimes to be supplied for a
subsequent clause, as C., Fin., i. 18, 61. The same thing happens with
the other negatives, as volo from nolo, iubeo from veto, scio from nescio,
queo from nequeo, quisquam from nemo, ut from n§.
POSITION OF THE NEGATIVE.
448. The Negative naturally belongs to the Predicate, and
usually stands immediately before it, but may be placed
before any emphatic word or combination of words.
Potes non revert!, SEN., E.M., 49, 10 ; possibly you may not return.
(N5n potes revert!, you cannot possibly return.} Saepe virl fallunt ; tenerae
non saepe puellae, Ov.,A.A.,m. 31 ; often do men deceive ; soft-hearted
maidens not often. Non omnis aetas, Lyde, liido convenit, PL., B., 129 ;
not every age, (good) Lydus (Playfair), sorts ivith play. Non ego ven-
tosae plebis suffragia vSnor, H., Ep., i. 19, 37; I do not hunt the voices of
the ivindy commons, no, not I.
NOTES. — 1. As the Copula esse, to be, is, strictly speaking, a predicate, the Negative
generally precedes it, contrary to the English idiom, except in contrasts. The differ-
ence in position can often be brought out only by stress of voice : fSllx n5n erat, he
wastft happy ; non felix erat, he was NOT happy, he was FAR PROM happy.
2. NS — quidem straddles the emphatic word or emphatic group (445) ; but very
rarely does the group consist of more than two words.
3. A negative with an Inf. is often transferred to the governing verb : nSn putant
lugendum (esse) virls, C., Tusc., in. 28, 70 ; on nego, see 447.
449. Two negatives in the same sentence destroy one
another, and make an affirmative, but see 445 :
Non nego, I do not deny (I admit}.
REMARKS. — i. Non possum non, I cannot but (I must):
Qul mortem in malls ponit non potest earn non timgre, C., Fin., in. 8,
29 ; he who classes death among misfortunes cannot but (must) fear it.
2. The double Negative is often stronger than the opposite Posi-
tive ; this is a common form of the figure LItotSs, understatement (700).
Non indoctus, highly educated ; non sum nescius, I am well aware.
Non indecorS pulvere sordid!, H., 0., n. i, 22; swart (soiled) with (no
dis)honourable dust. Non Ignara mali miseris succurrere disco, V., A., i.
630 ; not unacquainted (= but too well acquainted) with misfortune, I
learn to succour the wretched.
19
2QO INCOMPLETE SENTENCE.
3. It follows from R. 2 that noc non is not simply equivalent to et,
and ; nee belongs to the sentence, non to the particular word :
Nee hoc [Ze"n5] non vidit, f.., Fin., iv. 22, 60; nor did Zeno fail to see
this. At neque non«(di) diJigunt nos, C., Dii\, n. 49, 102 ; but neither (is
it true that) the gods do \iot love us, etc.
In the classical Latin this form of connection is used to connect clauses but not sin-
gle words, and the words are regularly separated. VAREO, the poets, and later prose
use necnon like et, and connect with it also single ideas.
4. Of especial importance is the position of the Negative in the fol-
lowing combinations ;
Indefinite Affirmative. General Affirmative.
nonnihil, somewhat ; nihil non, everything ;
nonnemo, some one, some ; nemo n5n, everybody ;
nonnulli, some people ; null! non, all ;
nonnumquam, sometimes ; numquam non, always ;
nonnusquam, somewhere ; nusquam n5n, everywhere.
In ipsa curia nonnemo hostis est, C., Mur., 39, 84 ; in the senate-house
itself there are enemies (n6mo non hostis est, everybody is an enemy).
Non est placandl spSs mini nfilla Dei, Ov., Tr., v. 8, 22 (428) ; / have some
hope of appeasing God (nulla sp5s non est, / have every hope). Nem5
n5n didicisse inavult quam discere, QUINT., m. i, 6; everybody prefers
having learned to learning.
INCOMPLETE SENTENCE.
Interrogative Sentences.
450. An interrogative sentence is necessarily incomplete.
The answer is the complement.
451. A question may relate :
(a) To the existence or the non-existence of the Predi-
cate : Predicate Question.
VIvitne pater 1 Is my father alive ?
(b) To some undetermined essential part of the sentence,
such as Subject, Object, Adjective, Adverbial modifier :
Nominal Question.
Quis est ? Who is it ? Quid ais 1 What do you say f QuI hie mos '
What sort of way is this 9 Cur n5n discedis 1 Why do you not depart ?
For a list of Interrogative Pronouns see 104.
REMARKS. — i. The second class requires no rules except as to mood
(462).
2. The form of the question is often used to imply a negative opin-
DIRECT SIMPLE QUESTIONS. 2QI
ion on the part of the speaker : Quid interc.it inter periurum et menda-
ceml C., Rose. Com., 16, 46; what is the dijj'trence between a perjured
man and a liar ? All questions of this kind are called Rhetorical.
452. i. Interrogative sentences are divided into simple and
compound (disjunctive). Am I? (simple) ; Am I, or am I
not? (disjunctive).
NOTE.— Strictly speaking, only the simple interrogative sentence belongs to this sec-
tion ; but for the sake of completeness, the whole subject will be treated here.
2. Interrogative sentences are further divided into direct
and indirect, or independent and dependent. Am 19 (di-
rect) ; He asks whether I am (indirect).
DIRECT SIMPLE QUESTIONS.
453. Direct simple questions sometimes have no inter-
rogative sign. Such questions are chiefly passionate in their
character, and serve to express Astonishment, Blame, Disgust.
Infelix est Fabricius quod rus suum fodit ? SEN., Dial., i. 3, 6; Fabri-
cius is unhappy because he digs his own field ? (Impossible !) Hens,
inquit. linguam vis meam praecludere ? PHAEDR., i. 23, 5; Ho ! ho ! quoth
he, you wish to shut my mouth, you do ? (You shall not.) Tuom para-
sltum n5n novistil PL., Men., 505 ; you don't know your own parasite ?
(Strange !) Hunc tu vltae splendorem maculis adspergis istls 1 C., Plane.,
12, 30 ; you bespatter this splendid life with such blots as those ?
NOTES. — 1. Questions of this kind are characteristic of the Comic Poets. In CICERO
they are found especially in expressions of doubt, with posse, and with an emphatic
personal pronoun.
2. Such a question may have the force of a command. So in the phrase etiam tu
taces 1 won't you keep quiet? common in comedy (PL., Trin., 514).
3. Noteworthy is the occasional usage of the question in place of a condition.
Amat ? sapit, PL., Am., 995 ; is he in, love? Tie is sensible. Trlstis es ? indignor
quod sum tibi causa doloris, Ov., TV., iv. 3, 33 (542). See 593, 4.
4. When several questions follow in immediate succession, only the first generally
takes the Interrogative Pronoun, or -ne. Repeated questioning is passionate.
5. On nt in the exclamatory question, see 558.
454. Interrogative Particles. Ne (enclitic) is always ap-
pended to the emphatic word, and generally serves to denote
a question, without indicating the expectation of the speaker.
Omnisne pecunia dissoltita est ? C., Verr., in. 77, 180; is ALL the money
paid out ? (Estne omnis pecunia dissoluta 1 is all the money paid out ?)
REMARKS. — i. As the emphatic word usually begins the sentence,
292 DIRECT SIMPLE QUESTIONS.
so -ne is usually appended LO the first word in the sentence. But
exceptions are not uncom-uon.
2. -Ne is originally a negative. Questioning a negative leans to the
affirmative; and -ne is not always strictly impartial.
NOTES.— 1. -Ne sometimes cuts off a preceding -s (in which case it may shorten a
preceding long vowel), and often drops its own e. Viden? Seest? Tun? You?
Satin ? For certain? Also scln, ain, vin, itan, etc. This occurs especially in early
Latin.
2. This -ne is not to be confounded with the asseverative -ne, which is found occa-
sionally in PLAUTUS and TERENCE, CATULLUS, HORACE (o s6rl studiorum, quine
putetis, etc., H.,<S., 1. 10, 21, a much discussed passage), and later appended to per-
sonal, demonstrative, and relative pronouns.
3. In poetry -ne is sometimes appended to interrogative words, to heighten the effect :
utrumne (n., s., n. 3, 251), quone (II., <$., n. 3, 295).
4. -Ne is often added to personal pronouns in indignant questions : tune inane
quicquam put6s esse ? C., Ac., n. 40, 125.
5. In early Latin -ne seems to be used sometimes with a force similar to that later
exercised by nonne ; but in most of the examples the expectation of an affirmative
answer seems to be due rather to the context than to ne ; see, however, R. 2.
455. Nonne expects the answer Yes.
Nonne meministll C., Fin., n. 3, 10 ; do you not remember ? Nonne
is generosissimus qul optimus ? QUINT., v. u, 4; is he not the truest gentle-
man who is the lest man ?
So the other negatives with -ne : nemone, nihilne, and the like.
NOTE.— Nonne is denied for PLAUTUS, but wrongly, though it occurs but rarely,
and regularly before a vowel. It is also rare in TERENCE. In classical Latin it is fre-
quent, but is never found in CATULLUS, TIBULLDS, and SENECA RHETOR.
456. Num. expects the answer No.
Numquis est hie alius praeter m6 atque tg ? N5m5 est, PL., Tr., 69; is
anybody here besides you and me ? No. Nnm tibi cum fauces urit sitis,
aurea qnaeris pocula? H., S., i. 2, 114 ; when thirst burns your throat
for you, do you ask for golden cups ? [No.]
NOTE.— Ntunne is found very rarely, perhaps only in C., N.D., i. 31, 88, and Lad.,
it, 36. Numnam belongs to early Latin. In many cases in early Latin, num seems
to introduce a simple question for information, without expecting a negative answer.
457. i. An (or) belongs to the second part of a disjunctive
question.
Sometimes, however, the first part of the disjunctive question is sup-
pressed, or, rather, involved. The second alternative with an serves to
urge the acceptance of the positive or negative proposition involved in
the preceding statement. This abrupt form of question (or, then) is of
frequent use in Remonstrance, Expostulation, Surprise, and Irony.
N5n manum abstines ? An tibi iam mavis cerebrum dispergam hie ?
TER., Ad., 781 ; are you not going to keep your hands off ? Or would
DIRECT DISJUNCTIVE QUESTIONS. 2Q3
you rather have me scatter your brains over the place now ? (Vir custodit
absens, my husband keeps guard, though absent. Is it not so ?) An
nescls longas regibus esse mantis ? Ov., Her., 16, 166 ; or perhaps you do
not know (you do not know, then) that kings have long hands (arms).
NOTES.— 1. This usage is found in early Latin, but is a characteristic of CICEBO
especially.
2. An is strengthened by ne. This is found frequently in early Latin, more rarely
later. CICERO uses anne only in disjunctive questions, and HORACE, TIBULLUS, PRO-
PERTIUS not at all.
3. In early Latin very frequently, less often in the poets ; occasionally in prose, be-
ginning with LIVY, an is used as a simple interrogative ; so nescio an = nescio num.
There seems to be good reason for believing that an was originally a simple interroga-
tive particle, but became identified later with disjunctive questions.
2. Especially to be noted, in connection with an, are the phrases,
nescio an (first in CICERO, and not common), baud scio an (this is the
usual phrase : baud sciam an is rare), / do not knoiv but ; dubito an, I
doubt, I doubt but = I am inclined to think ; incertum an (once in
CICERO), and rarely dubitarim and dubium an, which give a modest affir-
mation ; very rarely a negation. Negative particles, added to these
expressions, give a mild negation.
Haud scio an ita sit, C., Tusc., n. 17, 41; I do not knoiv but it is so.
Hand scio an nulla (senectus) beatior esse possit, C., Cat. II., 16, 56; I do
not know but it is impossible for any old age to be happier. Dubito an
[Tbrasybulum] primum omnium ponam, NEP., vin. i, 1; I doubt but 1
should (= 1 am inclined to think I should) put Thrasybulus first of all.
NOTE.— In early Latin these phrases are still dubitative. The affirmative force comes
in first in CICERO, and seems to have been equivalent to forsitan, perhaps, with the
Potential Subjunctive : F5rsitan et PriamI fuerint quae fata requiras, V., A., n.
506 ; perhaps you may ask what was the fate of Priam, too.
DIRECT DISJUNCTIVE QUESTIONS.
458. Direct Disjunctive Questions have the following
forms :
First Clause. Second and Subsequent Clauses.
utrum, whether, an (anne), or
-ne, an,
an (anne).
Utrum nescls quam alte" ascenderis, an pro ninilo id putas ? C., Fam., x.
26, 3 ; are you not aware how high you have mounted, or do you count
that as nothing ? Vosne Lucium Domitium an vos Domitius deseruit *
CAES., B.C., n. 32, 8 ; have you deserted Lucius Domitius, or has Domi-
tius deserted you ? lloquar an sileam ? V., A., in. 39; shall I speak, or
hold my peace ? Utrum hoc tu parum commeministl, an ego non satis in-
tellexf, an mutastl sententiaml C., Alt., ix. 2; do you not remember this,
or did I misunderstand you, or have you changed your view ?
294 INDIRECT QUESTIONS.
NOTES.— 1. TTtrunme— an is found once in CICERO (Inv.,i. 31,6!), not in CAESAB
or LIVT, occasionally elsewhere (H., Epod., i, 7) ; utruni — ne — an is more common.
Ne— an, which is common in prose, is not found in CAT., TIB., PROP., Hon., LUCAN.
2. Ne in the second member, with omitted particle in first member, occurs only in
H., Ep., i. ii, 3 (disputed), in the direct question, except in the combination necne (459).
3. Ne— ne is very rare ; V., A., H. 738 ; xi. 126.
4. Aut (or), in questions, is not to be confounded with an. Aut gives another part
of a simple question, or another form of it (or, in other words). An excludes, aut
extends.
(Voluptas) meli5remne efficit aut laudabiliorem virum ? C., Farad., \. 3, 15 ;
does pleasure make a better or more praiseworthy man ? (Answer : neither?) Tu
virum me" aut hominem deputas adeo ease? TER., Hec., 524 ; do you hold me (o
be your husband or even a man ?
459. In direct questions, or not is annon, rarely necne ; in
indirect, necne, rarely annon.
Isne est quern quaero, annon? TER., Ph., 852; is that the man I am
looking for, or not ? Sitque memor nostrl necne, referte mihl, Ov., Tr.,
iv. 3, 10 (204, N. 7).
NOTES.— 1. Necne is found indirect questions in CICERO, Twc., in. 18, 41 (sunt
liaec tua verba necne ?), Place., 25, 59 ; and also LUCR., in. 713. Annon in indirect
questions occurs in CICERO, Inv., i. 50, 95 ; n. 20, 60 ; Gael., 21, 52 ; Halo. ,8, 22, etc.
2. Utrum is sometimes used with the suppression of the second clause for whether
or no? but not in early Latin. So C., Flacc., 19, 45, etc.
INDIRECT QUESTIONS.
460. Indirect questions have the same particles as the
direct, with the following modifications.
1 . Simple Questions.
(a) Num loses its negative force, and becomes simply
whether. It decays in later Latin.
Specular! (iusserunt) num sollicitati animi sociorum essent, L., XLII. 19,
8 ; they ordered them to spy out whether the allies had been tampered
with.
(Z>) SI, if, is used for whether, chiefly after verbs and sen-
tences implying trial. Compare 0 si (261).
Temptata res est si prlmo iiupetu cap! Ardea posset, L., i. 57, 2; an at-
tempt was made (in case, in hopes that, to see) */ Ardea could be taken
by a dash (coup-de-main). Ibo, visam si domi est (467, N.), TEK,., Heaut.,
170; / will go (to) see if lie, is at home.
NOTES.— 1. An is sometimes used for num and ne, but never in model prose.
Consuluit deinde (Alexander) an totius orbis imperium fatis sibi destina-
rStur, CURT., iv. 7, 26 ; Alexander then asked the oracle whether the empire of the
whole world was destined for him by the fates.
2. Nonne is cited only from CICERO and only after quaerere (Ph., xn. 7, 15).
MOODS IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 2Q$
2. Disjunctive Questions.
In addition to the forms for Direct Questions (458), a form with -ne
in the second clause only is found in the Indirect Question, but is
never common ; see 458, N. 2.
Tarquinius Priscl Tarquinil regis filius neposne fuerit parum liquet, L. ,
i. 46, 4; whether Tarquin was the son or grandson of king Tarquin the
Elder does not appear.
NOTES.— 1. The form -no is not found in CAESAR or SALLUST.
2. The form ne— ne is poetical, except once in CAESAR (B. G., vn. 141, 8).
3. Utrum— ne— an is rare but classical. TJtrumne— an begins with HORACE, is not
found in LIVY, VELL., VAL. M., and both PLINYS. In TACITUS only in the THalogus.
SUMMARY OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISJUNCTIVE
QUESTIONS.
461. Direct.
Is the, last syllable short or long ? Cf. C., Or., 64, 217.
Postrema syllaba utrum brevis est an longa ?
brevisne est an longa T
Indirect.
In a verse it makes no difference whether the last syllable be short or
long :
f utrum postrema syllaba brevis sit an longa.
I postrema syllaba brevisne sit an longa.
I postrSma syllaba brevis an longa sit (CICERO).
[postrema syllaba brevis sit longane.
MOODS IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
1. In Direct Questions.
462. The Mood of the question is the Mood of the expected
or anticipated answer.
463. Indicative questions expect an Indicative answer,
when the question is genuine.
A. Quis homo est ? B. Ego sum, TER., And., 965 ; who is that ? It is I.
A. VIvitne (pater) 1 B. VIvom llquimus, PL., Capt., 282; is his father
living ? We left him alive.
464. Indicative questions anticipate an Indicative answer
in the negative when the question is rhetorical.
Quis non paupertatem extimgscitl C., Tusc., v. 31, 89 ; who does not
dread poverty ?
296 MOODS IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
REMARK. — Nonne and num in the direct question are often rhetorical
(see PL., Am., 539 ; C., Div., i. 14, 24). With nonne a negative answer
is anticipated to a negative, hence the affirmative character. Compare
further, 451, R. 2.
465. Subjunctive questions which expect Imperative an-
swers are put chiefly in the First Person, when the question
is deliberative.
A. Abeam? B. Abl, PL., Merc., 749 ; shall I go away ? Oo.
A. Quid nunc faciam ? B. T6 suspendito, PL., Ps., 1229; what shall I
do now ? Hang yourself.
REMARK. — So in the representative of the First Person in dependent
discourse (265).
466. Subjunctive questions anticipate a potential answer
in the negative, when the question is rhetorical.
Quis hoc credat ? who would believe this ? [No one would believe
this.] Quid faceret aliud? ivhat else was he to do ? [Nothing.]
Quis tulerit Gracchos dS sSditione querentes ? Juv., n. 24 (259).
REMARK. — On the Exclamatory Question see 534, 558.
2. In Indirect Questions.
467. The Dependent Interrogative is always in the Sub-
junctive.
The Subjunctive may represent the Indicative.
[C5nsiderabimns] quid fgcerit (Indie, fecit), quid facial (Indie, facit), quid
facturus sit (Indie, faciet or facturus est), Of. C., Inv., i. 25, 36; we mil
consider what he has done, what he is doing, what he is going to do
(will do). (Epanunondas) quaeslvit salvusne esset clipeus, C., Fin., n. 30,
97 ; Epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe. (Salvusne est 1)
The Subjunctive may be original. See 265.
Ipse docet quid agam; fas est et ab hoste doceri, Ov., M., iv. 428 (219);
(Quid agam, what I am to do ; not what I am doing). Quaero a t§ cur
C. Cornelium non dgfenderem, C., Vat., 2, 5 ; J inquire of you why I was
not to defend C. Cornelius. (Cur non defenderem 1 why was I not to
defend ?)
REMARKS. — i. Nescio quis, nescio quid, nescio qui, nescio quod, I know
not who, what, which, may be used exactly as indefinite pronouns, and
then have no effect on the construction. This usage is found at all
periods.
Nescio quid maius nascitur Iliade, PROP., n. (in.) 32(34), 66 ; some-
thing, I knoiv not what, is coming to the birth, greater than the Iliad.
PECULIARITIES OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 297
2. The Relative has the same form as the Interrogative quis ? except
in the Nom. Sing. ; hence the importance of distinguishing between
them in dependent sentences. The interrogative depends on the lead-
ing verb, the relative belongs to the antecedent. (611, R. 2.)
Interrogative : die quid rogem, tell me what it is I am asking.
Relative : die quod rogo, TER., And., 764 ; tell me that which I am
asking (the answer to my question).
The relative is not unfrequently used where we should expect the
interrogative, especially when the facts of the case are to be empha-
sised :
Dicam quod senti5, C., Or., i. 44, 195 ; I will tell you my real opinion.
Incorporated relatives are not to be confounded with interrogatives :
Patefacio vobis quas istl penitus abstrusas insidias (= insidias quas) se
posuissse arbitrantur, C., Agr., n. 18, 49; 1 am exposing to your view the
schemes which those people fancy they have laid in profound secrecy.
NOTE.— In the early Latin of Comedy the leading verb is very frequently discon-
nected from the interrogative, which consequently appears as an independent sentence
with the Indicative. This is most common after die, responds, loquere, and kindred
Imperatives; vidS (PLAUTUS also circumspice, respice); tS rogo, interrogo,
quaero, and similar phrases ; aucliro, viclere, etc., scln ; relative words, ut, quomodo,
etc., where the modal and not interrogative force is prominent. Classical prose has
given up all these usages. A few cases in CICERO are contested or differently explained.
In poetry and later prose the examples are found only here and there.
Die, quid est ? PL-, Men., 397; tell me, what is it? (Die quid sit, tell me what it
is.) Quin tu un5 verbs die : quid est quod m6 veils ? TER., And., 45 ; won't you
tell me in one word : What is it you want of me f Die niihi quid f ScI nisi n5n sapi-
enter amavl, Ov., Her., n. 27; tell me what have I done, save that I have loved
unwisely.
So also, nescio quomodo, I know not how = strangely ; and mlrum quantum, it
(is) marvellous how much = ivonderfully, are used as adverbs :
Mir um quantum profuit ad concordiam, L., n. i, 11 ; it served wonderfully to
promote harmony. Nescio quo pacto vel magis hominSs iuvat gloria lata quam
magna, PLIN., Ep., iv. 12, 7 ; somehow or other, people are even more charmed to have
a widespread reputation than a grand one.
Early Latin shows also perquam, admodum quam, minis quam, incredibilo
quantum ; CICERO mlrum inure) quam, nimium quantum, sane quam, valde
quam; CAESAR none of these ; SALLUST immane quantum; LIVY adds oppido quan-
tum ; PLINY MAI. immSnsum, Infinltum quantum ; PLORUS plurimum quan-
tum. The position excludes a conscious ellipsis of the Subjunctive.
PECULIARITIES OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
468. The subject of the dependent clause is often treated
as the object of the leading clause by Anticipation (Prolepsis).
Nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit, CAELIUS (C., Fam., viu. 10, 3); you
know Marcellus, what a slow creature he is.
NOTE.— This usage is very common in Comedy, and belongs to conversational style
in general.
298 PECULIARITIES OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
469. Contrary to our idiom, the interrogative is often used
in participial clauses. In English, the participle and verb
change places, and a Causal sentence becomes Final or Con-
secutive.
Quam utilitatem petentes scire cupimus ilia quae occulta nobis sunt 1 C.,
Fin., m. 1 1, 37 ; what advantage do we seek when we desire to know those
things which are hidden from us ? [Solon PisistratS tyrann5] quaerentl
qua tandem re frgtus sib! tarn audaciter resisteret, respcndisse dicitur
senectute, C., Cat.M., 20, 72 ; Solon, to Pisistratus the usurper, asking
him (= wlien Pisistratus the usurper asked him) on what thing relying
(= on what he relied that) he resisted him so boldly, is said to have
answered " old age"
NOTE.— The Abl. Abe. with the interrogative is rare. C., Verr., in. 80, 185.
470. Final sentences (sentences of Design) are used in
questions more freely than in English.
Sessum it praetor. Quid ut iudicgtur I C., N.D., in. 30, 74 ; the judge
is going to take his seat. What is to be adjudged ? (To adjudge what ?)
REMARK. — The Latin language goes further than the English in
combining interrogative words in the same clause ; thus two iiiterroga-
tives are not uncommon :
Considera quis quern fraudasse dicatur, C., JRosc.Com., 7, 21.
Yes and No.
471. (a) Yes is represented :
1. By sane, (literally) soundly, sanS quidem, yes indeed, etiam, even
(so), vSr5 (rarely vSrum), of a truth, ita, so, omnlno, by all means, certg,
surely, certo, for certain, admodum, to a degree, etc.
Aut etiam aut n6n respondere [potest], C., Ac., n. 32, 104 ; he can
answer either yes or no.
2. By cgnseo, / think so ; scilicet, to be sure.
Quid s! etiam occentem hymenaeum ? CSnseo, PL., Cos., 806 ; what if
I should also sing a marriage-song ? I think you had better.
3. By repeating the emphatic word either with or without the con-
firmatory particles, vSrS (principally with pronouns), sang, prSrsus, etc.
Estisne? Sumus, are you ? We are. Dasnel DO sane", C., Leg., i. 7,
21 ; do you grant ? I do indeed.
(V) No is represented :
1. By n5n, non v8rS, non ita, minimg, by no means, niliil, nothing,
miniine vero, niliil sang, nihil minus.
2. By repeating the emphatic word with the negative :
SYNTAX OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 299
Non Irata es * Non sum Irata, PL., Gas., 1007 ; you are not angry ?
I am not.
(c) YEA or NAY. — Immo conveys a correction, and either removes a
doubt or heightens a previous statement : yes indeed, nay rather.
Ecquid placeant (aedes) mSrogas! Immo perplacent, PL., Most., 907 ;
do I like the house, you ask me ? Yes indeed, very much. Causa igitur
n5n bona est ? Immo optima, C., Att., ix. 7, 4 ; the cause, then, is a bad
one ? Nay, it is an excellent one.
REMARK. — Yes, for, and no, for, are often expressed simply by nam
and enim : Turn Antonius : Herl enim, inquit, h5c mihl proposueram, C.,
Or., ii. 10, 40 ; then quoth Antony : Yes, for I had proposed this to
myself yesterday.
SYNTAX OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
472. i. A compound sentence is one in which the neces-
sary parts of the sentence occur more than once ; one which
consists of two or more clauses.
2. Coordination (Parataxis) is that arrangement of the
sentence according to which the different clauses are merely
placed side by side.
3. Subordination (Hypotaxis) is that arrangement of the
sentence according to which one clause depends on the other.
He /became poor and we became rich; the second clause is
a coordinate sentence.
He became poor that we might be rich; the second clause
is a subordinate sentence.
4. The sentence which is modified is called the Principal
Clause, that which modifies is called the Subordinate Clause.
" He became poor " is the Principal Clause, " that we might
be rich " is the Subordinate Clause.
REMARK. — Logical dependence and grammatical dependence are not
to be confounded. In the conditional sentence, vivam si vlvet, let me
live if she lives, my living depends on her living ; yet " vivam " is the
principal, " si vivet " the subordinate clause. It is the dependence of
the introductory particle that determines the grammatical relation.
COORDINATION.
473. Coordinate sentences are divided into various classes,
according to the particles by which the separate clauses are
bound together.
300
COORDINATION.
REMARK. — Coordinate sentences often dispense with conjunctions
(Asyndeton). Then the connection must determine the character.
Copulative Sentences.
474. The following particles are called Copulative Con-
junctions : et, -que, atque (ac), etiam, quoque.
NOTE. — The Copulative Conjunctions are often omitted, in climax, in enumerations,
in contrasts, in standing formulte, particularly in dating by the consuls of a year, if the
praenomina are added ; and finally, in gumming up previous enumerations by such
words as alii, cSterl, cuncti, multl, omne"s, reliqul.
475. Et is simply and, the most common and general par-
ticle of connection, and combines likes and uulikes.
Panem et aquam natura deslderat, SEN., E.M., 25, 4 ; bread and water
(is what) nature calls for. Probitas laudatur et alget, Juv., i. 74 ; hon-
esty is bepraised and — freezes.
NOTES. — 1. We find sometimes two clauses connected by et where we should expect
et tamen. This usage is characteristic of TACITUS, but is found all through the
language. Fieri potest, ut rectS quis sentiat et id, quod sentit, polite eloqui
non possit, C., Tusc., i. 3, 6.
2. Et sometimes introduces a conclusion to a condition expressed in the Imperative,
but only once in early Latin, never in classical prose. Die quibus in terrls ; et eris
mihi magnus Apollo, V., EC., in. 104.
3. Et, instead of a temporal conjunction, begins with CAESAR (Cf. B.G., I. 37, 1)
and SALLTJST (lug., 97,"4) ; it is never common.
4. On neque ullus for et nullus and the like, see 480. On et after words indi-
cating Likeness, see 643. On et for etiam, see 478, N. 2.
476. -due (enclitic) unites things that belong closely to
one another. The second member serves to complete or ex-
tend the first.
Senatus populusque Romanus, C., Plane., 37, 90; the Senate and people
of Rome. Ibi mortuus sepultusque Alexander, L. , xxxvi. 20, 5 ; there
Alexander died and was buried. [S61J oriens et occidens diem noctemque
conncit, C., N.D., n. 40, 102 ; the sun by its rising and setting makes
day and night.
NOT.ES. — 1. Que was very common in early Latin, especially in legal phraseology,
where it was always retained.
2. Que— que — que is ante-classical and poetic.
3. Que is always added to the first word in the clause it introduces, in PLAUTUS, as
well as in classical prose ; but the Augustan poets are free hi their position, for metrical
reasons. As regards prepositions, que is never appended to ob and sub, rarely to a and
ad, but frequently to other monosyllabic prepositions ; it is always appended to dissyl-
labic prepositions in -a, and often to other dissyllabic prepositions.
4. On que for quoque see 479, N. 2.
5. Combinations :
(«) et— et;
(b) que — et; rare in early Latin, never in CICERO, CAESAR; begins with SALLTJST.
COORDINATION. 3OI
SAIXUST and TACITUS always add the que to the pronoun, LIVY and later prose writ-
ers to the substantive.
(c) et— que ; rare, and beginning with ENNIUS.
(d) que— que begins with PLAUTUS, ENNIUS. CICERO has it but once (noctSsque
diesque, Fin., i. 16, 51) ; it enters prose with SALLUST, and poets are fond of it.
Et domino satis et nimium furlquelupoque, TIB., iv. i, 187 ; enough for owner,
and too much for thief and wolf.
477. Atque (compounded of ad and -que) adds a more
important to a less important member. But the second mem-
ber often owes its importance to the necessity of having the
complement (-que).
Ac (a shorter form, which does not stand before a vowel
or h) is fainter than atque, and almost equivalent to et.
Intra moenia atque in sinu urbis sunt hostSs, S., C., 52, 35 ; within the
watts, ay, and in the heart of the city, are the enemies. A. Servos ] Ego *
B. Atque meus, PL., Cas., 735 ; a slave ? I? And mine to boot.
NOTES. — 1. The confirmative force of atque, as in the second example, is found
especially in PLAUTUS, occasionally later.
2. Atque adds a climax, and then is often strengthened by gcastor, profecto, vSr5,
etc., PL., B., 86 ; C., Tusc., i. 20, 46.
3. In comedy, atque has sometimes demonstrative force : atque eccum, PL., St., 577.
4. Occasionally in CICERO, then in the Augustan poets, LIVY and later prose writers,
notably TACITUS, atque or ac is often used to connect the parts of a clause in which
fit or que (sometimes both) has been already employed :
Et potentes sequitur invidia et humiles abiectosque contemptus et turpgs
£c nocentes odium, QUINT., iv. i, 14 ; the powerful are followed by envy ; thelowand
grovelling, by contempt ; the base and hurtful, by hatred.
5. Atque— atque is found occasionally in CATO, CATULLUS, CICERO, and VERGIL.
Que— atque begins in poetry with VERGIL, in prose with LIVY, and is very rare.
C. Atque, introducing a principal clause after a temporal conjunction, belongs
exclusively to PLAUTUS : Dum circumspecto m§, atque ego lembum conspicor, B.,
279. Also Ej)., 217.
1. Atque is used before consonants, as well as ac, to connect single notions : when
sentences or clauses are to be connected, ac only is allowable ; either atque or ac with
expressions of Likeness.— STAMM.
8. On atque, after words indicating Likeness, see 643. Atque follows a comparative
only after a negative in early and classical Latin. HORACE is first to use it after a
positive.
9. Phraseological is alius atque alius, one or another, found first in LIVY, and rare.
478. Etiam, even (now), yet, still, exaggerates (heightens),
and generally precedes the word to which it belongs.
Nobis r5s familiaris etiam ad necessaria deest, Cf. S., C., 20, 11 ; ice
lack means even for the necessaries of life. Ad Appl Claud! senectutem
accedebat etiam ut caecus esset, C., Cat.M., 6, 16 (553, 4).
NOTES.— 1. Etiam as a temporal adverb refers to the Past or Present, and means
still; it is sometimes strengthened by turn (tune) or nnm (nunc). But beginning with
3<D2 COORDINATION.
LTVT, adhtic, which properly refers only to the Present, is extended to the Past and
used like etiam (turn).
N5n satis m6 pernosti etiam qualis sim, TEK., And., 503 ; you still do not know
well enough (= little know) what manner of person I am. Cum iste (i.e., Polemar-
chus) etiam cubaret, in cubiculum introductus est, c., T~m-., m. 23, 56 ; while the
defendant (Poletnarchm) was still in bed, he was introduced into the bedroom.
2. Instead of etiam, et is occasional in PLAUTUS, in a change of person. CICERO
uses it also after an adversative conjunction, as v8rum et ; also after nam and simul ;
more often when a pronoun follows, as et ille, et ipse. CAESAB never uses it so,
SALLUST rarely, but it becomes common from Lrvr on.
3. Phraseological is etiam atqne etiam, time and again. On etiam for yes, see
471,1.
479. Quoque, so also, complements (compare que) and
always follows the words to which it belongs.
Cum patrl (Timothei) popnloa statuam posuisset, filio quoque dedit, Cf.
NEP., xui. 2, 3 ; the people, having erected a statue in honour of the
father of Timotheus, gave one to the son also (likewise).
REMARK. — The difference between etiam and quoque is not to be
insisted on too rigidly :
Grande et conspicuum nostro quoque temper e monstrum, Juv., iv. 115 ;
a huge and conspicuous prodigy, even in our day.
NOTES. — 1. In ante-classical and post-classical Latin the double forms etiam —
quoque, etiam quoque, are sometimes found, and in classical Latin also quoque
etiam occasionally : nunc v6r5 meS quoque etiam causa rogo, C., Or., i. 35, 164.
2. Que in the sense of quoque is rare (compare mBque, CAT., en. 3 ; me too), and is
found chiefly in the post- Augustan hodi6que, to-day also.
480. Copulation ~by means of the Negative. — Instead of et
and the negative, neque (nee) and the positive is the rule in
Latin.
Oplnionibus vulgl rapimur in err or em nee vSra cernimus, C., Leg., n. 17,
43 ; by the prejudices of the rabble we are hurried into error, and do not
distinguish the truth. (Caesar) properans noctem di5i coniunxerat neque
iter intermiserat, CAES., B.C., in. 13, 2; Caesar in his haste had joined
night with day and had not broken his march.
REMARKS. — i. Et — non, and — not, is used when the negation is
confined to a single word, or is otherwise emphatic ; but neque is found
occasionally here, even in CICERO (Off., in. 10, 41).
Et mllitavl nOn sine gloria, H., 0., in. 26, 2 ; and I have been a sol-
dier not without glory.
On nee n5n, the opposite of et n6n, see 449, R. 3.
2. In combination with the negative we have the following
Paradigms : And no one, neque quisquam, nor any one.
And no, neque ullus, nor any.
And nothing, neque quidquam, nor anything.
And never, neque umqnam, nor ever.
COOKDINATION. 303
Neque amet quemquam nee amgtur ab ullo, Juv., xn. 130 ; may he love
no one, and be loved by none.
3. Nee is often nearly equivalent to nee tamen, and yet not :
Extra invidiam nee extra gloriam erat, TAC., Agr., 8, 3 ; he was beyond
the reach of envy, and yet not beyond the reach of glory. Cf. TER.,
Eun., 249 ; C., Tusc., n., 25, GO.
NOTES.— 1. Neque = nS quidem, is ante-classical and post-classical : nee nunc,
cum mS vocat ultro, accedam 7 II., £,11.3, 262 (the only case in HORACE).
2. CAESAR, LUCRETIUS, VERGIL, and PROPERTIUS use neque regularly before
vowels.
3. Combinations :
(a) neque— neque ; nee— nee ; neque— nee ; nee— neque. Sometimes the first
neque has the force of and neither ; but this is limited in prose to CAESAR, SALLUST,
and LIVT ; in poetry to CATULLUS and PROPERTIUS.
(6) neque— et ; neque— que ; neque— ac. Of these neque— et is rare in early
Latin, but more common in CICERO and later ; neque — que is rare, and found first in
CICERO ; neque— atque (ac) is very rare, and begins in TACITUS.
(c) et — neque is found first in CICERO, who is fond of it, but it fades out after him.
4. Neque is usually used for non, when followed by the strengthening words
enim, tamen, ve"ro, etc.
481. i. Insertion and Omission of Copulatives. — When
multus, much, many, is followed by another attribute, the
two are often combined by copulative particles : many re-
nowned deeds, multa et praeclara facinora ; many good qual-
ities, multae bonaeque artes.
2. Several subjects or objects, standing in the same rela-
tions, either take et throughout or omit it throughout. The
omission of it is common in emphatic enumeration.
PhrygSs et PIsidae et Cilice's, C., Div., i. 41, 92 ; or, Phryges, Plsidae,
CilicSs, Phrygians, Pisidians, and Cilicians.
NOTE.— Et before the third member of a series is rare, but occurs here and there at
all periods ; in CICERO it usually draws especial attention to the Last member. Atque
(£c) is used thus a little more frequently (m5r8s instituta atque vita, C., Fam., xv.
4, 14), and que is not uncommon : aegritudinBs, Irae libidinSsque, C., Tusc., i.
33,80.
3. Et is further omitted in climaxes, in antitheses, in
phrases, and in formula.
Virl n5n [est] debilitari dolore, frangi, succumbere, C., Fin., n. 29, 95 ;
it is unmanly to allow one's self to be disabled (unnerved) by grief, to be
broken-spirited, to succumb. Difficilis facilis, iucundus acerbus, es idem,
MART., xn. 47, 1 (310).
PatrSs ConscrlptI, Fathers (and) Conscript (Senators).
luppiter Optimus Maximus, Father Jove, supremely good (and) great.
304 COORDINATION".
Other Particles Employed.
482. Other particles are sometimes employed instead of
the copulative in the same general sense.
1. Temporal : turn — turn, then — then; alias— alias, at one time — at
another ; iam — iam, nunc — mine, modo — modo, now — now ; simul — simul,
at the same time.
Turn GraecS — turn Latlne, partly in Greek, partly in Latin. Horatius
Cocles nunc singulos provocabat, nunc increpabat omnes, Cf. L., n. 10, 8 ;
Horatius Cocles now challenged them singly, now taunted them all.
Modo hue, modo illuc, C., Alt., xm. 25, 3 ; now hither, now thither
(hither and thither). Simul spernebant, simul metugbant, they despised
and feared at the same time (they at once despised and feared).
NOTES. — 1. Of these turn— turn is not ante-classical, nunc— nunc is found first in
LUCR., and is introduced into prose by LIVY : simul— simul is found first in CAESAR,
but not in CICERO ; iam— iam begins with VERGIL and LIVT. Aliquand5— ali-
quando, quandoque— quandSque, are post-Augustan ; interdum— interdum is
rare, but occurs in CICERO.
2. The combinations vary in many ways. Ciceronian are turn— alias ; alias—
plSrumque ; interdum— alias ; modo— turn ; modo— vicissim ; most of them found
but once. Some fifteen other combinations are post-Ciceronian.
3. On cum— turn, see 588.
2. Local : In CICERO only alio — ali5 ; hinc — illinc. Others are : hie —
illic (first in VERGIL) ; hinc— bine (VERGIL, LIVY) ; hinc — inde (TACITUS) ;
illinc— hinc (Livv) ; inde — hinc (TACITUS) ; alibi — alibi (Livy) ; aliunde —
aliunde (PLINY).
3. Modal : aliter — aliter ; qua — qua, rare, and lacking in many authors
(e.g., CAESAR, SALLUST). In CICERO only four times, and confined to
the Letters ; pariter — pariter is poetical and post-classical ; aeque — aeque
is found once in HORACE and once in TACITUS.
4. Comparative : ut — ita, as — so :
Dolabellam ut TarsSnsSs ita LaodicSni ultr5 arcessiSrunt, C., Fam., xn.
13, 4 ; as the people of Tarsus so the people of Laodicea (= both the
people of Tarsus and those of Laodicea) sent for Dolabella of their own
accord.
Often, however, the actions compared are adversative ; and ut may
be loosely translated although, while.
Haec omnia ut invltls ita n5n adversantibus patricils transacta, L., in.
55, 15 ; all this was done, the patricians, though unwilling, yet not
opposing (= against the wishes, but without any opposition on the part
of the patricians).
NOTE.— There are also many other similar combinations, as : quemadmodum—
Sic ; ut— SIC ; tamquam— sic, etc. The adversative use of ut— ita is rare in the clas-
sical period, but extends later.
COORDINATION. 305
5. Adversative : non modo, non solum, non tantum, not only ; sed, sed
etiam, sed — quoque, verum etiam, but even, but also :
TTrbes maritimae non solum multis perlculls oppositae [sunt] sed etiam
caecls, C., Rep., n. 3, 5 : cities on the seaboard are liable not only to
many dangers, but even (also) to hidden (ones). [Non] docerl tantum sed
etiam delectarl volunt, QUINT., iv. i, 57 ; they wish not merely to be
taught, but to be tickled to boot.
In the negative form, non modo non, not only not ; sed ne — quidem,
but not even ; sed vix, but hardly.
Ego non modo tibi non Irascor, sed nS reprehendo quidem factum tuum,
C., Still., 1 8, 50 ; 1 not only am not angry ivith you, but I do not even
find fault with your action.
REMARKS. — i. Instead of non modo (solum) non — sednS — quidem, the
latter non is generally omitted, when the two negative clauses have a
verb in common, the negative of the first clause being supplied by the
second ; otherwise both negatives are expressed.
Pisonc consule senatui non solum iuvare rem publicam sed n6 luggre
quidem Iic5bat, Cf. C., Pis. 10, 23; when Piso was consul, it was not only
not left free for the senate (= the senate was not only not free) to help
the commonwealth, but not even to mourn (for her).
2. Nedum, not (to speak of) yet, much less, is also used, either with or
without a verb in the Subjunctive ; it is found first and only once in
TERENCE, never in CAESAR and SALLUST, in CICERO only after negative
sentences ; from LIVY on it is used after affirmative clauses as well.
Satrapa numquam sufferre gius sumptus queat, nSdum til possis, TER.,
-ZZeem^.,454; a nabob could never stand that girl's expenditures, much
less could you.
NOTES.— 1. Non tantum is never found in early Latin, CAESAR and SALLUST,
rarely in CICERO. Sed— quoque is found first in CICERO ; so, too, sed simply, but
rarely. LIVY is especially free in his use of sed. VSrum, in the second member, is
not ante-classical nor Tacitean. Non alone in the first member is rare, but Ciceronian,
it is usually followed by sed only ; occasionally by sed etiam. Sed is sometimes
omitted from LIVY on. Of. L., xxviu. 39, II ; TAC., Ann., in. 19, 2, etc,
2. Sed et, for sed etiam, belongs to post-Augustan Latin.
Adversative Sentences.
483. The Adversative particles are : autem, sed, verum,
vfiro, at, atqul, tamen, ceterum. Of these only sed and tamen
are really adversative.
NOTE.— The Adversative particles are often omitted : as when an affirmative is fol-
lowed by a negative, or the reverse, or in other contrasts.
484. Autem (post-positive) is the weakest form of but, and
20
306 COORDINATION.
indicates a difference from the foregoing, n, contrast rather
than a contradiction. It serves as a particle of transition
and explanation (= moreover, furthermore, now), and of
resumption (—to come back), and is often used in syllo-
gisms.
Moclo accSdens, turn autem recSdens, C. , N. D. , n. 40, 102 ; now approach-
ing, then again receding. Rumoribus mecum pugnas, ego autem a tS
ratiSnes require, C., N.D., in. 5, 13; you fight me, with rumours, whereas
I ask of you reasons. Quod est bonum, onine laudabile est ; quod autem
laudabile est, omne est honestum ; bonum igitur quod est, honestum est,
C., Fin., in. 8, 27; everything that is good is praiseworthy ; but every-
thing that is praiseivorthy is virtuous; therefore, what is good is
virtuous.
REMARK. — Autem commonly follows the first word in the sentence
or clause ; but when an unemphatic est or aunt occupies the second
place, it is put in the third. So igitur and enim.
NOTES. — 1. Noteworthy is the use of autem in lively questions. CICERO employs
it in this way, also to correct his own previous questions (Epanorthdste).
Egon debacchatus sum autem an tu in me * TER., Ad., 185. Num quis testis
Postumium appellavit 1 Testis autem ? non accusator ? C., Rab.Post., 5, 10.
2. Autem is a favorite word with CICERO, especially in his philosophical and moral
works, but not with the Historians, least of all with TACITUS, who uses it only nine
times in all.
485. Sed (set) is used partly in a stronger sense, to denote
contradiction, partly in a weaker sense, to introduce a new
thought, or to revive an old one.
Non est vlvere sed valgre vita, MART., vi. 70, 15 (442, R. 2). Domitius
nulla quidem arte sed Latins tamen dicebat, C., Br., 77, 267; Domitius
spoke with no art it is true, but for all that, in good Latin.
NOTES.— 1. The use of sed to carry on a narrative is characteristic of the historians,
though found also in CICERO. Sed in ea coniuratione fuit Q. Curius, S., C., 23, 1.
2. Sed is repeated by anaphora (682), occasionally in CICERO (Verr., 111.72, 169),
more often later.
3. Sed may be strengthened by tamen ; by v5r5, enimvSrS, enim ; by autem,
but only in connection with quid, and then only in comedy and in VERGIL. Some-
times it is equal to sed tamen, as in V., A., TV. 660.
• 486. Verum, it is true, true, always takes the first place
in a sentence, and is practically equivalent to sed in its
stronger sense.
Si certum est facere, faciam ; verum ne post conferas culpam in me, TER.,
Eun. , 388 ; if you are determined to do it, I will arrange it ; but you
must not afterward lay the blame on me.
COOKDISTATION. 3O/
NOTE. VSrum gradually gives place to sed in CICERO. It is used occasionally to
return to the subject (ve"rum haec quidem hactenus, C., Tusc., m. 34,84), and in
yielding a point (verum esto, C., Fin., n. 23, 75), where1 sed is the usual word.
487. Vero, of a truth, is generally put in the second place,
asserts with conviction, and is used to heighten the state-
ment.
[Platonem] Dion adeo admlratus est ut s5 totum ei traderet. Neque
vero minus Plato delectatus est Dione, NEP., x. 2, 3; Dion admired Plato
to such a degree that he gave himself wholly up to him ; and indeed
Plato was no less delighted with Dion.
NOTKS.— 1. VSro is properly an affirmative adverb, and such is its only use in
PLAUTUS. In TERENCE it has also acquired adversative force, which it preserves
throughout the language in greater or less degree ; so iu the historians it is hardly more
than autem.
2. The combination vErum v5r5 is ante-classical ; on combinations with enim,
see 498, N. 6.
3. Ver5 is also, but not so commonly, used in transitions ; especially in the formulae
age v6ro, iam ve"ro.
488. At (another form of ad = in addition to) introduces
startling transitions, lively objections, remonstrances, ques-
tions, wishes, often by way of quotation.
" PhiloctSta, St! brevis dolor." At iam decimum annum in spSlunca
iacet, C., Fin., n. 29, 94 ;" Philoctetes, still ! the pain is short." But
he has been lying in his cave going on ten years. "At multis malls
affectus?" Quis negat? C., Fin., v. 30, 92; "but he has suffered
much ? " Who denies it ? At vidgte hominis intolerabilem andaciam !
C., Dom., 44, 115; well, but see the fellow's insufferable audacity! At
vobls male sit! CAT., in. 13; and ill luck to you !
NOTES.— 1. Ast is the archaic form of at, and is found occasionally in CICERO, de
Leg. and ad AM., but more often in the poets and the later archaists.
2. At is used in anaphora, and also, especially in the poets, in continuing the narra-
tive. Noteworthy is its use after conditional sentences (in CICERO only after negatives,
never in SALLUST), where it is frequently strengthened by certe", tamen, saltern: si
minus supplicio adficl, at custodirl oportSbat, C., Verr., v. 27, 69.
489. Atqui (but at any rate, but for all that) is still
stronger than at, and is used chiefly in argument.
Vix crgdibile. Atqui sic habet, H., S., i. 9, 52 ; scarce credible. But
for all that, 'tis so.
NOTES. — 1. Atquin is occasional in early Latin, and even in CICERO.
2. At seems sometimes to be used for atqul. C., Tusc., in. 9, 19.
490. Tamen (literally, even thus), nevertheless, is often
combined with at, verum, sed.
308 COORDINATION.
It is commonly prepositive, unless a particular word is to
be made emphatic.
Naturam expelles furca, tamen usque recurret, H., Up., i. 10, 24 ; you
may drive out Dame Nature unth a pitchfork, for all that she will ever
be returning. Domitius nulls quidem arte sed Latlne tamen dlcebat, C.,
Br., ii. 77,267(485).
REMARK. — Nihilominus (nothing the less), nevertheless, is used like
tamen, by which it is occasionally strengthened.
491. Ceterum, for the rest, is used by the Historians as an
adversative particle.
Duo imperatores, ipsl pares ceterum opibus disparibus, S., lug., 52, 1 ;
tivo commanders, equal in personal qualities, but of unequal resources.
NOTE.— CSterum is found once in TERENCE (Eun., 452), once iu CICERO (Q.F., n.
12, 1), otherwise not before SAIXUST.
Disjunctive Sentences.
492. The Disjunctive particles are aut, vel, -ve, sive (sen),
NOTE.— The Disjunctive particles are but rarely omitted, and then mainly in con-
trasted opposites like pauper dives, plus minus, and the like.
493. i . Aut, or, denotes absolute exclusion or substitution.
Vinceris aut vincis, PROP., n. 8, 8 ; you are conquered or conquering.
2. Aut is often corrective — or at least, at most, rather
(aut saltern, aut potius).
Cunctl aut magna pars fidem mutavissent, S., lug., 56, 5 ; all, or at least
a great part, would have changed their allegiance. Duo aut summum
tr5s iuvenes, L., xxxui. 5, 8 ; two, or at most three, youths.
3. Aut — aut, either — or.
Quaedam terrae partes aut frigore rigent aut uruntur calore, Cf. C.,
Tusc., i. 28, 68 ; some parts of the earth are either frozen with cold or
burnt with heat. Aut die aut accipe calcem, Juv., in. 295 ; either speak
or take a kick.
NOTES. — 1. The use of aut to carry on a preceding negative is found first in CICERO.
but becomes more common later : nSm5 tribunes aut plSbem timebat, L-, in. 16, 4.
2. Aut is sometimes equivalent to partly— partly in TACITUS ;
Hausta aut obruta Campaniae ora, //., i. 2.
3. On aut in interrogative sentences, see 458, N. 4.
494. i. Vel (literally, you may choose) gives a choice,
often with etiam, even, potius, rather.
COOKDINATION. 309
Ego vel Cluvignus, .Tuv., T. 80 ; /, or, if you choose, Cluviemis. Per
me vel stertas licet, non modo quiescas, C., Ac., u. 29, 93 ; for all I care,
you may (even) snore, if you choose, not merely take your rest (sleep).
Satis vel etiam nimium multa, C., Fam., iv. 14, 3 ; enough, or even too
much. Epicurus homo minims malus vel potius vir optimus, C., Tusc., n.
19, 44 ; Epicurus (was) a person by no means bad, or, rather, a man of
excellent character.
2. Vel — vel, either — or (whether — or).
[ Miltiades cllxit ] ponte rescisso rcgem vel hostium ferrd vel inopia paucis
diebus interiturum, NEP., i. 3, 4 ; Miltiades said that if the bridge were
cut the king would perish in a few days, whether by the sword of the
enemy, or for want of provisions.
NOTES.— 1. Vel, for example, is rare in PLAUTUS and TEKENCE, but common in
CICERO, especially in the Letters.
2. Vel in the sense of aut is rare in the classical period (C., Rep., n. 28, 50), but is
more common later, beginning with OVID. See TAC., Ann., i. 59.
3. Vel— vel is found in PLAUTUS occasionally in the sense as well as, but in clas-
sical Latin is rigidly distinguished from et— 6t.
4. Aut is not uncommonly subdivided by vel — vel : aut canere vel voce vel
fidibus, C., Div., n. 59, 122.
495. -Ve (enclitic) is a weaker form of vel, and in CICEEO
is used principally with numerals, in the sense at most, or
with words from the same stem or of similar formation.
Bis terve, C., Fam., n. i, 1 ; twice or at most thrice (bis terque, twice
and indeed as much as thrice, if not more).
Cur timeam dubitemve locum defendere? Juv., i. 103 ; why should I
fear or hesitate to maintain my position ? Aliquid faciendl n6n faciendrve
ratio, C., Inv., u. 9, 31 ; the method of doing something or not doing it.
NOTES.— 1. In early Latin ve is more often copulative than adversative.
2. Ve— ve is poetical only.
496. i. Slve (seu), if you choose, gives a choice between
two designations of the same object.
Urbem matri seu novercae relinquit, L., i. 3, 3 ; he leaves the city to his
mother or (if it seems more likely) to his step-mother.
2. Sive — slve (seu — seu), whether — or (indifference).
Slve medicum adhibueris slve non adbibueris non convalesces, C., Fat.,
12, 29 ; whether you employ a physician, or do not employ (one), you
ivill not get well. Seu visa est catulls cerva fidelibus seu rupit teretes
Marsus aper plagas, H., 0., i. i, 27 ; whether a doe hath appeared to the
faithful hounds, or a Marsian boar hath burst the tightly-twisted toils.
NOTES.— 1. Single slve (= or) is not found in PLAUTUS or TERENCE ( Cf. And., 190),
but it occurs in LUCRETIUS, LUCILIUS, and is common in CICEHO. CAESAR and SAL-
3IO COORDINATION.
LUST, however, do not use it, and it is rare in the Poets. In the sense of slve— Bive it
is found occasionally in poetry ; but in prose only three tunes in TACITUS.
2. Slve— Slve is not found in TERENCE, but from CICERO on becomes common.
3. No distinction seems possible between slve and seu.
497. An is used in the sense of or not uncommonly in CICERO,
especially in the Letters; occasionally in LIVY, and frequently in TACI-
TUS. Elsewhere it is rare. See 457.
Tiberius casu an manibus [Hateril] impeditus prociderat, TAC., Ann.,
i. 13, 7 ; Tiberius had fallen forward, either by chance or tripped by
Haterius1 hands.
Causal and Illative Sentences.
498. A. The Causal particles are nam, enim, namque. and
etenim, for.
Nam is put at the beginning of a sentence ; enim is post-positive
(484, R.) : namque and etenim are commonly put in the first place.
Sensus mirince conlocatl sunt ; nam oculi tamquam speculators altissi-
mum locum obtinent, C., N.D., 11. 56, 140 ; the senses are admirably
situated ; for the eyes, like watchmen, occupy the highest post. Pisces
ova relinquunt, facile enim ilia aqua sustinentur, C., N.D., n. 51, 129 ;
fish leave their eggs, for they are easily kept alive by the water. [Themi-
stocles] muros Atheniensium restituit suo periculo ; namque Laoedaemonii
prohibere conati sunt, NEP., n. 6, 2 ; Themistocles restored the walls of
Athens with risk to himself ; for the Lacedaemonians endeavoured to
prevent it.
NOTES.— 1. The Augustan poets postpone both nam and namque according to the
requirements of the metre, and in prose, beginning with LIVY, namque is found some-
times in the second place, but more often in LIVY than later.
In early Latin enim is often first in the sentence ; etenim is postponed in prose
only in the elder FLINT and APULBIUS ; in the poets, not uncommonly, so in AFRANIUS,
TIBULLUS, PROPERTIUS, and HORACE.
2. These particles are originally asseverative, and are often used not only to furnish
a reason, but also to give an explanation or illustration (as for Instance). Quid enim
agasl what, for instance, can you do? This is especially true of enim, but is also
common enough with nam (N. 3), and a broad difference between nam and enim
(which is of common origin with nam) cannot be proved. Etenim is often used to
carry on the argument, and gives an additional ground.
3. The asseverative force of nam is retained in conversational style occasionally,
even in CICERO ( Verr., i. 51, 133). Enim is almost wholly asseverative in PLAUTUS and
TERENCE. Namque is very rare in PLAUTUS and TERENCE, and is found before vowels
only. In classical Lathi it is also rare, and found usually before vowels. With LIVY it
comes into general use before vowels and consonants equally. Etenim is found but once
in PLAUTUS (Am., 26, an interpolation) and four times in TERENCE ; in post-classical
Latin also it is not common, but it is very frequent in classical Latin, especially in CICERO.
4. Noteworthy is the use of nam, in passing over a matter : nam quid ego d§
actione ipsa plura dicam ] (C., O., i. 5, 18), which is especially common in CICERO.
5. Nam shows an affinity for interrogative particles'. Here it sometimes precedes in
COORDINATION. 31 1
the early language (TER., Ph., 932), but becomes firmly attached in the classical period
in the forms quisnam, ubinam, etc., which, however, sometimes suffer tmesis and
transposition in poetry (V., G., 4,445).
6. In atenim (first in CICERO), nempe enim (ante-classical and post-classical),
sed enim (rare), v6rumenim, enimveTo, vSrum enimvSrS, as in etenim, the enim
gives.a ground or an illustration of the leading particle, but translation by an ellipsis
would be too heavy, and enim is best left untranslated :
A. Audi quid dicam. B. At enim taedet iam audire eaclem milieus, TER.,
Ph., 487 ; A. Hear what I say. B. But (I woii't, for) Iam tired of hearing the same
things a thousand times already.
7. Enim is used pleonastically after quia in early Latin, and then again in PETRO-
NIUS and GELLIUS ; also after ut and n5 in early Latin.
8. Quippe is originally interrogative. From this the causal force developes, which
is not uncommon in CICERO. In SALLUST, and especially in LIVY and later writers,
quippe is equal to enim.
499. B. Illative particles are itaque, igitur, ergo ; eo, hinc,
inde, ideo, idcirco, quocirca, propterea, quapropter, proin, pro-
inde.
500. Itaque (literally, and so), therefore, is put at the be-
ginning of the sentence by the best writers, and is used of
facts that follow from the preceding statement.
NSmo ausus est Phocionem liber sepelire ; itaque a servls sepultus est,
Cf. NEP., xix. 4, 4; no free man dared to bury Phocion, and so he was
buried by slaves.
REMARK. — Itaqne in early and classical Latin has first place in a sen-
tence. It is first postponed by LUCRETIUS, then by CORNIFICIUS and
HORACE, and more often later.
501. Igitur, therefore, is used of opinions which have their
natural ground in the preceding statement ; in CICERO it is
usually post-positive, in SALLUST never.
Mihl non satisfacit. Sed quot homines tot sententiae ; fall! igitur possu-
mus, C., Fin., i. 5, 15 ; ME it does not satisfy. But many men many
minds. , / may therefore be mistaken.
NOTE. — In historical writers igitur is sometimes used like itaque. Occasionally
also (not in classical Latin), it seems to have the force of enim (PL., Most., 1102, MSS.).
502. Ergo denotes necessary consequence, and is used espe-
cially in arguments, with somewhat more emphasis than igitur.
Negat haec ffliam me suam esse; non erg-5 haec mater mea est, PL.,
Ep., 590 ; she says that I am not her daughter, therefore she is not my
mother.
NOTES.— 1. In the Poets erg5 sometimes introduces a strong conclusion in advance
of the premise (II., <?., i. 24, 5). In the classical period, however, its predominant use ia
to introduce the logical conclusion.
312 SUBORDINATION.
2. Ergd usually conies first, but its position is apt to vary in accordance with the
stress laid upon it.
3. Itaque ergo is found in TERENCE and LIVT ; erg5 igitur in PJLAUTUS.
503. Other Coordinating Conjunctions : hinc, hence, is found not
unfrequently : hinc illae lacrumae, TER., And., 126. Inde, thence, there-
fore, is rare, and first in CICERO, but more common in later Latin. E5,
therefore, is found in early Latin, rarely in CICERO (Fam., vi. 20, 1),
not in CAESAR or SALLUST ; again in Livy and later ; so ideo, on that
account, but atque ide6 is found once in CAESAR. Idcirco, on that ac-
count, is rare, but from the earliest times. Quocirca, on which account,
is found first in the classical period ; quapropter is found here and there
in early Latin, but more commonly in the classical time, rarely later;
propterea, on that account, is rare, and belongs to early Latin. Proin,
proinde, accordingly, are employed in exhortations, appeals, and the like.
Quod praeceptum ( nosce te ipsum), quia maius erat quam ut ab homine
vid6r6tur, idcirco assignatum est deo, C., Fin., v. 16, 44 ; this precept
(know thyself), because it was too great to seem to be of man, was, on
that account, attributed to a god. Proinde aut exeant aut quiescant, C.,
Cat., ii. 5, 11; let them then either depart or be quiet.
SUBORDINATION.
504. Subordinate sentences are only extended forms of the
simple sentence, and are divided into Adjective and Substan-
tive sentences, according as they represent adjective and sub-
stantive relations.
This arrangement is a matter of convenience merely, and no attempt
is made to represent the development of the subordinate sentence from
the coordinate.
505. Adjective sentences express an attribute of the sub-
ject in an expanded form.
Tlxor quae bona est, PL., Merc., 812 (624) = uxor bona.
506. Substantive sentences are introduced by particles,
which correspond in their origin and use to the Oblique
Cases, Accusative and Ablative.
These two cases furnish the mass of adverbial relations, and hence
we make a subdivision for this class, and the distribution of the subor-
dinate sentence appears as follows :
507. A. Substantive sentences.
I. Object sentences.
SUBORDINATION. 313
II. Adverbial sentences :
1. Of Cause. (Causal.)
2. Of Design and Tendency. (Final and
Consecutive. )
3. Of Time. (Temporal.)
4. Of Condition and Concession. (Condi-
tional and Concessive.)
B. Adjective sentences. (Relative.)
Moods in Subordinate Sentences.
508. i. Final and Consecutive Clauses always take the
Subjunctive. Others vary according to their conception.
Especially important are the changes produced by Oratio
Obliqua.
2. Oratio Obliqua, or Indirect Discourse, is opposed to
Oratio Recta, or Direct Discourse, and gives the main drift
of a speech and not the exact words. Oratio Obliqua, proper,
depends on some Verb of Saying or Thinking expressed or
implied, the Principal Declarative Clauses being put in the
Infinitive, the Dependent in the Subjunctive.
Socrates dlcere solebat :
0. B. Omnes in eo quod sciunt satis sunt eloquentes.
Socrates used to say : "All men ARE eloquent enough in what
they UNDERSTAND."
6. 0. Omnes in eo quod scirent satis esse eloquentes, (.'., Or., i. 14, 63.
Socrates used to say that all men WERE eloquent enough in what
they UNDERSTOOD.
3. The oblique relation may be confined to a dependent
clause and not extend to the whole sentence. This may be
called Partial Obliquity.
0. E. Nova nupta dlcit : Fleo quod Ire necesse est.
The bride says : I weep because I must needs go.
0. 0. Nova nupta dlcit s§ flSre quod Ire necesse sit.
The bride says that she weeps because she must needs go.
6. B. Nova nupta net quod ire necesse est, Cf. CAT., LXI. 81.
The bride weeps because she must go.
6. 0. Nova nupta net quod Ire necesse sit.
TJie bride is weeping because " she must go " (quoth she).
314 SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
4. Akin to 0. 0. is the so-called Attraction of Mood, by
which clauses originally Indicative are put in the Subjunc-
tive because they depend on Infinitives or Subjunctives.
(603.)
NSa dubito quin nova nupta fleat quod Ire necesse sit. 1 do not doubt
that the bride is weeping because she must go.
REMARK. — The full discussion of O. 0. must, of course, be reserved
for a later period. See 648.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
509. i. In those dependent sentences which require the
Subjunctive, the choice of the tenses of the dependent clause
is determined largely by the time of the leading or principal
clause, so that Principal Tenses are ordinarily followed by
Principal Tenses ; Historical, by Historical.
NOTE.— As the subordinate sentence arose out of the coordinate, hypotaxis out of
parataxis, the tenses of the Subjv. had originally an independent value, and the asso-
ciation was simply the natural association of time. But in some classes of sentences a
certain mechanical levelling has taken place, as in the Final sentence ; and in others,
as in the Interrogative sentence, the range of the Subjv. is restricted by the necessity of
clearness, just as the range of the Inf. is restricted by the necessity of clearness (530) ;
BO that a conventional Sequence of Tenses has to be recognised. To substitute for
every dependent tense a corresponding independent tense, and so do away with the
whole doctrine of Sequence, is impossible. At the same time it must be observed that
the mechanical rule is often violated by a return to the primitive condition of para-
taxis, and that
2. This rule is subject to the following modifications :
1. Tense means time, not merely tense-form, so that
(a) The Historical Present may be conceived according to its sense
(Past) or according to its tense (Present). (229.)
(b) In the Pure Perfect may be felt the past inception or origin
(Past), or the present completion (Present). (235, i.)
2. The effect of a past action may be continued into the present or
the future of the writer (513).
3. The leading clause may itself consist of a principal and dependent,
clause, and so give rise to a conflict of tenses with varying Sequence
(511, E. 2).
4. An original Subjunctive (467) of the past (265) resists levelling,
especially in the Indirect Question.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
315
f the Present Subjunctive
(for continued action) ;
are followed by -I ., n f . 0 ,. ,.
J \ the Perfect Subiunctive
510.
All forms that relate 1
to the Present and I
Future (so especially f " * "J 1 the Perfect Subjunctive
Principal Tenses) (for completed action).
the Imperfect Subjunctive
(for continued action) ;
the Pluperfect Subjunc-
tive (for completed ac-
tion).
All forms that relate to
the Past (so especially I are followed by
Historical Tenses)
REMARK. — The action which is completed with regard to the lead-
ing verb may be in itself a continued action. So in English : / do not
know what Tie has been doing, I did not know what he had been doing.
The Latin is unable to make this distinction, and accordingly the
Imperfect Indicative (/ was doing) is represented in this dependent
form by the Perfect and Pluperfect, when the action is completed as
to the leading verb.
511.
PR. (PURE cognosce, I am finding out,
OR HIST.),
FUT., cognoscam,
to)
PURE PP., cognovl,
FUT. PF., c6gn5vero,
HIST. PR., cognosce,
out
I shall (try
find out,
I have found
(I know),
I shall have found
out (shall know),
I am (was) finding
out,
I was finding out,
I found out,
I had found out
(I knew),
When the Subjunctive is original, we have :
i quid facias,
( quid faceres,
cognovl, etc., I knew, quid faceres,
IMPF., cognoscebam,
HIST. Pr., cognovi,
PLDPF., cognoveram,
cognosce, etc., I am finding out,
quid facias,
what you are doing ;
quid fecerls,
what you have done,
what you have been
doing (what you did),
what you were doing
(before).
quid faceres,
what you were doing ;
quid fecisses,
what you had done, what
you had been doing,
what you were doing
(before).
what you are to do.
what you were to do.
what you were to do.
Principal Tenses.
Nihil rgfert postrSma syllaba brevis an longa sit, Of. C., Or., 64, 217
(461). TJbil (Caesarem) orant (historical) ut sibi parcat, CAES., B. O., vi. 9,
316 SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
7 (546, i). N6mo adeo ferus est ut non mitescere possit, H., Ep., i. i, 39
(552). Nee mea qul digitis lumina condat erit, Ov., Her. , 10, 120 (681, 2).
Riisticus exspectat dum defluat amnis, H., Ep., i. 2, 42 (572). Post mortem
in morte nihil est quod metuam mall, PL., Capt., 741 (631, 2). Ardeat ipsa
licet, tormentis gaudet amantis, Juv., vi. 209 (607).
Utrum nescls quam alts ascenderls an pro nihilo id putas ? C., Fam., x.
26,3 (458). Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstingns, C., Off.,
ii. 22, 76 (542). N6n is es ut te pudor umquam a turpitudine revocarit,
C., Cat., i. 9, 22 (552). Quern mea Calliopg laeserit unus ego (sum), Ov.,
Tr., ii. 568 (631, i). Sim licet extrgmum, sicut sum, missus in orbem, Ov.,
Tr., iv. 9, 9 (607). Multl fugrunt qul tranquillitatem expetentes a negotiis
publicis sg removerint, C., Off., i. 20, 69 (631, 2).
Historical Tenses.
Epaminondas quaesivit salvusne esset clipeus, C., Fin., n. 30, 97 (467).
Noctu ambulabat in publics Themistocles quod somnum capere non posset,
C., Tusc., iv. 19, 44 (541). [Atugniensgs] creant decem praetorgs qul exer-
citui praeessent, NEP., i. 4, 4(545). Accidit ut una nocte omngs Hermae
deicerentur, NEP. , vn. 3, 2 (513, R. 2). Ad Appi Claucli senectutem accgdgbat
etiam ut caecus esset, C., Cat.M., 6, 16 (553, 4). Hannibal omnia prius-
quam excgderet pugna (erat) expertus, L., xxx. 35, 4 (577). (Aggsilaus)
cum ex Aegypto revertergtur dgcgssit, NEP., xvn. 8, 6 (585).
Tanta opibus Etruria erat ut iam non terras solum sed mare etiam fama
nominis sui implesset, L., i. 2, 5 (521, R. i). Cum prlinl ordines hostium
concidissent, tamen acerrimg reliqui resistebant, OAES., B.G., vii. 62, 4
(587). Deleta (est) Ausonum gens perinde ac si inter neclvo bello certasset,
L., ix. 25, 9 (602).
Original Subjunctive Retained.
Ipse docet quid agam (original, agam) ; fas est et ab hoste docSrl, Ov.,
M., iv. 428 (219). Quaer5 a tg cur ego C. Cornglium non defenderem
(original, dgfenderem), C., Vat., 2, 5 (467). Misgrunt Delphos consultum
quid facerent (original, faciamus), NEP., n. 2, 6 (518).
REMARKS. — i. The treatment of the Hist. Pr. according to its sense
(past) is the rule in classical Latin, especially when the dependent clause
precedes. But there are many exceptions.
Agunt gratias quod sib! pepercissent ; quod anna cum hominibus con-
sanguineis contulerint queruntur, CAES., B. C., i. 74, 2; they return
thanks to them for having spared them, and complain that they had
crossed swords with kinsmen.
2. Noteworthy is the shift from the primary to the secondary sequence ;
this is mostly confined to clauses of double dependence, i.e., where one
subordinate clause is itself principal to a second subordinate clause.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 3 1/
Here the first has usually the primary, the second the secondary se-
quence.
Eogat ut curet quod dlxisset, C., Quinct., 5, 18 ; he asks him to attend
to what he had said (he would).
So of authors :
[ Chrysippus | disputat aethera esse euin quern homings lovem appellarent,
C., N.D., i. 15, 40 ; Chrysippus maintains that to be ether which men
call Jove.
3. The Pure Pf. is usually treated as a Hist. Pf. in the matter of
sequence :
Quae subsidia haberes et habere posses, exposui, Q. CICERO, 4, 13 ; what
supports you have or can have I have set forth.
4. The reverse usage, when an Hist. Pf. is followed by a primary
Subjv., is not common. Many of those cited from CICERO are from the
Letters, where the shift of tense might be influenced by the letter-tense
principle (252).
Sed quo consilio redierim, initio audistis, post estis expert!, C., Ph., x. 4, 8.
Quis miles fuit, qui Brundisil illam non vlderit, C., Ph., 11. 25, 61. (The
context shows that fait cannot be Pure Pf.)
512. Sequence of Tenses in Sentences of Design. — Sen-
tences of Design have, as a rule, only the Present and Im-
perfect Subjunctive. The Roman keeps the purpose and
the process, rather than the attainment, in view.
PR., edunt, they are eating,
PUBE PP., 5d6runt, they have eaten,
FUT., edent, they will eat,
ut vlvant,
>• that they may live (to
FUT. PP., ederint, they will have eaten,
IMPF., edebant, they were eating, ~\ ut vlverent,
PLUPF., Sderant, they had eaten, L that they might live (to
HIST. PP., 6d6runt, they ate, live).
Spectatum veniunt, veniunt spectentur ut ipsae, Ov., A. A., i. 99 (435).
Sed precor ut possim tutius ess« miser, 0 v. , Tr. , v. 2, 78 (424). Gallinae pen-
nis fovent pull5s ne" frigore laedantur, Cf. C., N.D., n. 52, 129(545). Lggem
brevem esse oportet quo facilius ab imperltis teneatur, SEN., E.M., 94, 38
(545). MS praemlsit domum haec ut nuntiem uxorl suae, PL., Am., 195 ; lie
has sent me home ahead of him, to take the news to his wife. Oculos
ecfodiam tibl n5 m5 observare possis, PL., Aul., 53; I will gouge out your
eyes for you, to make it impossible for you to watch me.
[Laelius] venisbat ad cgnam ut satiaret dSsideria naturae, C., Fin., n.
8, 25 ; Laelius used to go to table, to satisfy the cravings of nature.
(Phaethon) optavit ut in currum patris tolleretur, C., Off., in. 25, 94 (546, i).
3l8 SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
REMARK. — Parenthetical final sentences like ut ita dlcam, n5 errStis,
are really dependent on the thought or utterance of the speaker, and
have the present sequence everywhere.
N6 longior sim, vale, C., Fam., xv. 19; not to be tedious, farewell!
Ne tamen ignores, virtute Neronis Armenius cecidit, II., Ep., I. 12, 25 ; but
that you may not fail to know it, it was by the valour of Nero that the.
Armenian fell.
NOTES.— 1. The Pf. and Plnpf. Snbjv. are sometimes found in sentences of Design,
chiefly in earlier and later Latin (no example is cited from CAESAU or SALLUST), when
stress is laid on completion, or when an element of Hope or Fear comes in : Ut Sic
dlxerim (first found in QUINT.), if I may be allowed to use tfie expression.
Afflrmare audeo me omni ope adnlsurum esse ne frustra vos hanc spem de
m6 conceperltis, L., XLIV. 22 ; I dare assure you that I will strain every nerve to keep
you from having conceived this hope of me in vain. (After a past tense, n§ concepis-
sStis.) Nunc agendum est ne frustra oppressum esse Antonium gavisi simus,
C., ad /;/•., i. 4, 3. Hie obsistam, ne imprudent! hue ea se subrepsit (131, 4, b. 2)
mihl, PL., M.G., 333. Eff&cit n6 cuius alterlus sacrilegium r6s publica quam
NerOnis sSnsisset, TAC., Agr., 6.
When the tense is compound, the participle is usually to be considered as a mere
adjective.
Patronus extiti utl ne [Sex. Boscius] omnino desertus esset, C., Rose. Am., 2,
5 ; where desertus = solus.
2. Occasional apparent exceptions are to be explained in various ways. Thus, in C.,
Sest., 14, 32 : etiamne edlcere audeas nS maer§rent, we have a repetition as an
indignant question of the preceding statement : edicunt (Hist. Pr.) duo consules ut
ad suum vestltum senatores redirent.
513. Exceptional Sequence of Tenses : — Sentences of Re-
sult (Consecutive Sentences). In Sentences of Eesult, the
Present Subjunctive is used after Past Tenses to denote the
continuance into the Present, the Perfect Subjunctive to
imply final result. This Perfect Subjunctive may represent
either the Pure Perfect or Aorist, the latter especially with
the negative : the action happened once for all or not at all.
Present Tense :
[Siciliam Verres] per triennium ita vexavit ut ea restitui in antiquum
statum nullo modo possit, C., Verr., I. 4, 12 ; Verres so harried Sicily for
three years as to make it utterly impossible for it to be restored to iff.
original condition. In [Lucullo] tanta prudentia fait ut kodie stet Asia,
C., Ac., n. i, 3 ; Lucullus's forethought was so great that Asia stands
firm to-day.
Perfect Tense (Pure) :
(MurSna) Asiam sic obilt ut in ea neque avaritiae neque luxuriae vesti-
gium reliquerit, C., Mur., 9, 20 ; Murena so administered Asia as not to
have (that he has nat) left in it a trace either of greed or debauchery
(there is no trace there).
SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 319
Perfect Tense (Aorist) :
Equitgs hostium aoriter cum equitatu nostrS confllxgrunt, tamen ut nostrl
eos in silvas collgsque compulerint, CAES., B.G., v. 15, 1 ; the cavalry of
the enemy engaged the cavalry on our side briskly, and yet (the upshot
was that) our men forced them into the woods and hills. Neque vSro tarn
remisso ac languido animo quisquam omnium fuit qul ea nocte conquigverit,
CAES., B.C., i. 21, 5; and indeed there was no one at all of so slack and
indifferent a temper as to take (a wink of) sleep that night.
REMARKS. — i. After a Pure Pf., if the dependent clause is affirma-
tive, CICEIIO prefers the Impf. (he has but five cases of Pf.); if negative
the Pf. (in the proportion 2 to 1).
2. After accidit, contigit, and other verbs of Happening, the Impf. is
always used, the result being already emphasised in the Indie, form.
Accidit ut una nocte omngs Hermae deicerentur, NEP., vn., 3, 2 ; it
happened that in one night all the Ilermae were thrown down.
NOTES.— 1. The use of the Aoristic Pf. Subjv. after an Aoristic Pf. Indie, seems to
have been an attempt of the Romans to replace the consecutive Aor. Inf. in Greek with
wore. Examples are not found in early Latin, are rare in CICEBO, very rare in CAESAH,
perhaps not at all iij SALLUST ; more frequent in LIVT, common in TACITUS, very com-
mon hi NEPOS and SUETONIUS, etc.
2. In two coordinated clauses depending on the same verb we find the tenses occa-
sionally varying. The Pf. in the first subordinate, with Impf. in the second, is doubtful
in any case, rare in CICERO, and is cited but once each from CAESAR (B. O., vu. 17) and
VELLEIUS (i. 9, 1). The reverse construction, Impf. followed by Pf., is more common,
but found first (though rarely) in LIVY, and belongs mainly to late Latin.
Zeno nullo morto is erat qul nervos virtutis inciderit, sed contra qul omnia
in virtute poneret, C., Ac., 1. 10, 35. Here the shift is due to the negative. Tantus
pavor omngs occupavit ut non modo alius quisquam anna caperet— sed etiam
ipse rgx perfugerit, L., xxiv. 40, 1#. Here the tenses depend on the ideas of continu-
ance and completion, of the many and the single (n5n capigbant— rSx perfugit >.
3. In relative sentences of coincident action with causal coloring, either the coinci-
dence is retained, or a principal clause in the Past is followed by the Impf. Subjunctive.
Tu hiiinanisshng fgcisti qul me certiorem feceiis, C., Att., xm. 43,1. Cum
hoc Pompgius vehementer ggit cum dlceret, etc., C., Att., n. 22, 2. Videor mihi
gratum fgcisse Siculls, quod eorum iniurias sim persecutus, c., Verr.,u. 6, 15
(518, K.).
Representation of the Subjunctive in the Future and
Future Perfect Tenses.
514. The Subjunctive has no Future or Future Perfect,
which are represented either by the other Subjunctives, or
in the Active by the Subjunctive of the Periphrastic Conju-
gation.
RULE I. — (a) After a Future or Future Perfect Tense, the
Future relation (contemporary with the leading Future) is
32O SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
represented by the Present Subjunctive ; the Future Perfect
(prior to the leading Future) by the Perfect Subjunctive,
according to the rule.
Cognoscam, "1 quid facias, what you are doing
I shall (try to) find out, (will be doing).
Cognovero, I quid feceris, what you have done
I shall have found out (shall know), j (will have done).
(b) But whenever the dependent Future is subsequent to
the leading Future, the Periphrastic Tense must be employed.
Cognoscam,
I shall (try to) find out, I™4 factSruB 8te'
CognSverS,
I shall have found out (shall know), J you wil1 do)'
[Consider abimus], [ice shnJl consider].
A. Quid fgcerit aut quid ipsl accident aut quid dlxerit, what he has
done, or what has happened to him, or what he /to-s said.
B. Aut quid faciat, quid ipsl accidat, quid dlcat, or, what he is doing,
what is happening to him, what he is saying.
C. Aut quid facturus sit, quid ips! casurum sit, qua sit usurus oratione,
C., Inv., i. 25, 36; or what he is going to do (will do), what is going to
(will) happen to him, what plea he is going to employ (will employ).
Tu quid sis acturus pergratum erit si ad m6 scripseris, 0., Fam., ix. 2, 5;
it will he a great favour if you will write to me what you are going
to do.
REMARK. — In some of these forms ambiguity is unavoidable. So A
may represent a real Perfect, B a real Present.
515. EULE II. — After the other tenses, the Future relation
is expressed by the Active Periphrastic Subjunctive, Present
or Imperfect.
CSgnSsco, 1
/ am finding out, I quid facturus sis (what you are going to
Cognovi, do), what you will do.
I have found out (know), |
C5gnosc6bam,
/ was trying to find out, I quid facturus essSs (what you were going to
Cognoveram, do), what you would do.
J had found out,
SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 321
Tarn ea res est facilis ut innumerabills natura mundos effectura sit, cffi-
ciat, effecerit, Cf. C., N.D., i. 21, 53; the thing is so easy that nature
will make, is making, has made, innumerable worlds.
Incertum est quam longa cuiusque nostrum vita futura sit, C., Verr., i.
58, 153 ; it is uncertain how long the life of each one of us is going to
be (will be).
Antea dubitabam venturaene essent legiones ; nuuc iuih! non est dubium
quln venturae n5n sint, C., Fain., n. 17, 5 ; before, I was doubtful whether
the legions would come (or no) ; now I have no doubt that they will not
come.
REMARKS. — i. The Pf. and Plupf. Subjv. of the Periphrastic are used
only to represent the Apodosis of an Unreal Conditional Sentence.
Cognosce, Cognovl, quid facturue fuerls, (what you have been
I am finding out, I have found cut what you would h .me done, going to do).
(know),
Cognoscebam, Cognoveram, [quid facturiu fuissSs, (what you had been
I was trying to find out, I had found out, what you would have going to do).
done, rare.]
2. There is no Periphrastic for the Fut. Pf. active, no Periphrastic
for passive and Supineless Verbs. The Grammars make up a Peri-
phrastic for all these from futurum sit, esset ut, as :
Nandubitoqulnfuturumsit, \
I do not doubt
I ut necetur, that he will be killed.
But there is no warrant in actual usage.
For the dependent Fut. Pf. act. TERENCE says (Hec., 618).: Tu5 r8fert nil utrum
illaec feceriut quandS liaec aberit.
For the dependent Fut. Pf. pass. CICERO says (Fam.,vi. 12,8) : Nee dubito quin
cSnfecta res futura sit, nor do I doubt but the matter will have beeh settled.
In the absence of the Periphrastic forms, use the proper tenses of posse. (248, R.)
3. When the preceding verb has a future character (Fear, Hope,
Power, Will, and the like), the simple Subjv. is sufficient.
Galli, nisi pcrfregerint munition es, de omnl salute desperant ; Roman!, si
rem obtinuerint, finem labSrum omnium exspectant, CAES., B. o., VH. 85, 3 ; the
Gauls despair of all safety unless they break through (shall have broken through) the
fortifications ; the Romans look forward to an end of all their toils, if they hold their
own (shall have held). VSnerunt querentSs nee spem ullam esse resistendi, nisi
praesidium Romanus misisset, L-, xxxiv. n, 2 ; they came with the complaint that
there ivas no hope of resistance unless the Roman sent a force to protect them. Intenti
quando hostis inprudentia rueret, TAC., H., n. 34.
Of course the Deliberative Subjunctive is future : Examples, 265.
Et certamen habent letl, quae vivasequatur coniugium, PEOP., iv. 12, 19 (M.).
516. Sequence of Tenses in Oratid Obliqua : In Oratio Obli-
qua and kindred constructions, the attraction of tenses ap-
21
322 SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
plies also to the representatives of the Future and Future
Perfect Subjunctive.
In [clava] erat scrlptum nisi domum reverterStur sg capitis eum damna-
turos, NEP., iv. 3, 4; it was written on the staff that if he did not re-
turn home, they would condemn Mm to death. (Oratio EScta : nisi
domum revertSris, tS capitis damnabimus, unless you (shall) return home,
we will condemn you to death). Pythia praecgpit ut Miltiadem sibl im-
peratorem sumerent ; id si fScissent (6. E., ffccerltis) incepta prospera futura
(6. E., eront), NEP., i. i, 3 ; the Pythia instructed them to take JQltiades
for their general ; that if they did that, their undertakings would be
successful. Lacedaemonii, Philippo minitante per litteras s6 omnia quae
conarentur (0. E., conabimini) prohibittirum, quaeslverunt num s6 esset eti-
am morl prohibiturus (6. E., prohibsbis), C.,Tusc., v. 14, 42; the Lacedae-
monians, when Philip threatened them by letter that he would prevent
everything they undertook (should undertake), asked whether he was
going to (would) prevent them from dying too.
517. Sequence of Tenses after the other Moods. — The Im-
perative and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive have the
Sequences of the Principal Tenses ; the Imperfect and Plu-
perfect have the Sequences of the Historical Tenses.
[NS] compone comas quia sis venturus ad illam, Ov., Hem. Am., 679; do
not arrange (your) locks because (forsooth) you are going to see her.
Excellentibus ingenils citius defuerit ars qua civem regant quam qua hostem
superent, L., n. 43, 10; great geniuses would be more likely to lack the
skill to control the citizen than the skill to overcome the enemy. Quid
mS prohibgret EpicurSum esse, s! probarem quae ille dicer et 7 C., fin., i.
8, 27; what would prevent me from being an Epicurean if I approved
what he said (says) ? Turn ego tS primus hortarer diu pgnsitarSs quern
potissimuxn eligerSs, PLIN., Ep., iv. 15, 8; in that case I should be the
first to exhort you to weigh long whom you should choose above all
others. Quae vita fuisset Priamo si ab adulSscentia scisset quos eventus
senectutis esset habiturus ? C., Div., n. 9, 22 ; what sort of life would
Priam have led if he had known, from early manhood, what were to be
the closing scenes of h is old age ?
REMARKS. — i. Of course, when the Pf. Subjv. represents an Histor-
ical Tense, it takes the historical Sequence :
Magna culpa Pelopis qul non docuerit filium quatenus esset quidque
curandum, C., Tusc.. i. 44, 107; greatly to blame is Pelops for not having
taught his son how far each thing was to be cared for. Qul scis an ea
causa m6 odisse adsimulaverit, ut cum matre plus una esset T TER., Hec.,
235; how do you know but she has pretended to hate me in order to be
more with her (own) mother f
SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
323
So also in the Conditional proposition, when the action is past. For
varying conception, see C., Off., in. 24, 92.
2. The Impf. Subjv., being used in opposition to the Present, might
be treated as a Principal Tense, but the construction is less usual :
Vergrer nS immodicam oratiSnem putarSs nisi esset generis gius ut saepe
incipere saepe dSsinere videatur, PLIN., Ep., ix. 4, 1; / should be afraid
of your thinking the speech of immoderate length, if it were not of such
kind as to produce the effect of often beginning, often ending. 6 ego ng
possim tales sentlre dolores quam mallem in gelidis montibus esse lapis !
TIB., ii. 4, 7.
518. Sequence of Tenses after an Infinitive or Participle.
— When a subordinate clause depends on an Infinitive or
Participle, Gerund or Supine, the tense of that clause follows
the tense of the Finite verb, if the Finite verb is Past ; if the
Finite verb is Present, it follows the tense that the dependent
verb would have had, if it had been independent.
Dicit sS interrogate (original
interrogo),
He says that he is asking,
( quid agas,
quid egerls,
] quid acturus sis,
I
what you are doing,
what you have done,
what you are going
to do (will do).
Mini interrogantl,
when I ask him,
(literally : to me asking),
Mini interroganti,
when I asked him,
(literally : to me asking),
quid ageres,
quid egisses,
quid acturus esses,
f quid agat,
quid Sgerit,
what you were doing.
what you had done.
^l'hat you were going
to do (would do).
Dicit sg interrogasse (original
interrogavl),
He says that he asked,
DIxit s6 interrogate (original
interrogS),
He said that he was asking,
what he is doing, C n5n re-
what he has spondet,
done, 1 he gives
I quid acturus what he is going no an-
[ sit, to do (will do), [ swer.
quid ageret, ^vhat he ivas do-
ing,
quid ggisset, what he had
done,
quid acturus
esset, what he was go-
ing to do,
Apud Hypanim fluvium Aristotelgs ait bestiolas quasdam nascl quae unam
diem vivant, C., Tusc., i. 39, 94 (650). Satis mih! multa verba fecisse vi-
deor quarS esset hoc bellum necessarium, C., Imp., 10, 27; / think I have
said enough (to show) why this war is necessary. Apelles pictorgs eos
n5n re-
spondit,
he gave
no an-
swer.
324 REFLEXIVE IX SUBORDINATE SENTENCES.
peccare dlcebat qul n5n sentirent quid esset satis, C., Or., 22, 73; Apellea
used to say that those painters blundered who did not perceive ichat
was (is) enough. Athenienses Cyrsilum quendam suadentem ut in urbe
mangrent lapidibus obrugrunt, C., Off., in. u, 48(546). Cupldo incessit
animos iuvenum sclscitandl ad quern eorum regnum Bomanum esset ventu-
rum, L., i. 56, 10; the minds of the young men were seized by the desire
of inquiring to which of them the kingdom of Rome would come.
Mlsgrunt Delphos consulturn quid facerent, NEP., n. 2, 6 ; they sent to
Delphi to ask the oracle what they should do. See 265.
REMARK. — Nevertheless examples are not unfrequent where the
sequence of the governing verb is retained : Videor mihi gratum fScisse
Siculis quod eorum iniuriSs meo periculo sim persecutus, C., Ven:, n. 6, 15;
/ seem to have pleased the Sicilians, in that I have followed up their
injuries at my own risk (on account of the coincidence, 513, N. 3).
519. Original Subjunctives in Dependence. — i. The Po-
tential of Present or Future after a Past tense goes into the
Past ; the same is true of Deliberative Questions (465). On
the other hand, the Potential of the Past must be retained
even after a Present tense (467).
Vide5 causas esse permultas quae [Titum Eoscium] impeller ent, C., Rose.
Am. , 33, 92 ; / see that there are very many causes which might have
impelled Titus Roscius. Quaero a tS cur Gaium Cornelium non defenderem,
C., Vat., 2, 5 (467).
2. On the behaviour of Conditional Subjunctives in depend-
ence see 597, n. 4.
REMARK. — The Sequence of Tenses is not unfrequently deranged by
the attraction of parenthetic clauses or, especially in long sentences, by
the shifting of the conception. Examples are C., Balb,, i. 2 ; Ph., m.
15, 39 ; Ac., n. 1 8, 56, and many others.
USE OF THE REFLEXIVE IN SUBORDINATE
SENTENCES.
520. In subordinate clauses, the Eeflexive is used with
reference either to the subject of the principal, or to the
subject of the subordinate, clause ; and sometimes first to
the one and then to the other.
521. The Reflexive is used of the principal subject when
reference is made to the thought or will of that subject ;
hence, in Infinitive Sentences, in Indirect Questions, in Sen-
REFLEXIVE IN SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 325
tences of Design, and in Sentences which partake of the
Oblique Relation.
Sentit animus s6 vl sua, n5n aliena movSii, C., Tusc., I. 23, 55; the
mind feels that it moves by its own force, (and) not by that of another.
Quaesiverunt num sS esset etiam morl prohibiturus, C., Tusc., v. 14, 42
(516). Pompeius a me petivit ut secura et apud se essem cottldie, Cf. C.,
Alt., v. 6, 1 ; Pompey asked me to be with him, and at his house, daily.
Paetus o nines libros quos frater suns rellquisset mih! donavit, C., AH., n. i,
12 ; Paetus presented to me all the books (as he said) that his brother had
left (qu5s frater elus rellquerat, would be the statement of the narrator).
REMARKS. — i. Sentences of Tendency and Result have forms of is,
when the subj. is not the same as that of the leading verb ; otherwise
the Reflexive :
Tarquinius sic Servium diligebat ut is eius vulgo haberetur films, G.,
Rep. n. 21, 38 ; Tarquin loved Servius so that he was commonly consid-
ered his son. But Tanta opibus Etruria erat ut iam non terras sSlum sed
mare etiam fama n5minis sui implesset, L., i. 2, 5; so great in means (= so
powerful) was Etruria that she had already filled not only the land,
but even the sea, with the reputation of her name.
2. The Reflexive may refer to the real agent, and not to the gram-
matical subj. of the principal clause. (309, 2.)
A Caesare invitor sib! ut sim legatus, C., Alt., n. 18, 3; / am invited
by Caesar (= Caesar invites me) to be lieutenant to him.
Especially to be noted is the freer use of suus (309, 4). The other
forms are employed chiefly in reflexive formulae (309, 3), as se recipere,
to withdraw, etc.
(Roman!) sul colligendi hostibus facultatem (non) relinquunt, C.u:s.,
B.G., m. 6, 1(309, 3).
3. The Reflexive is used in general sentences, as one, one's self, etc.
(309, i): DSforme est dS s5 ipsum praedicare, C., Off., i. 38, 137; it is un-
seemly to be bragging about one's self.
With the Inf. this follows naturally from 420.
4. In Indie, relative sentences, which are mere circumlocutions (505),
is is the rule:
SocratSs inhonestam sib! crSdidit 5rati5nem quam ei Lysias re5 compo-
suerat, QUINT., n. 15, 30; Socrates believed the speech which Lysias had
composed for him when he was arraigned, dishonoring to him.
Sometimes, however, the Reflexive is put contrary to the rule :
Metellus in ils urbibus quae ad se clef ecer ant praesidia imponit, S.,
lug., 61, 1; Metellus put garrisons in those towns which had gone over
to him ; regularly, ad eum.
Ille habet quod sib! debebatur, PETR., 43, 1; he has his due; regu-
larly, ei.
326 KEFLEXIVE IN SUBORDINATE SENTENCES.
5. Sometimes the Demonstrative is used instead of the Reflexive,
because the narrator presents his point of view:
Solon, quo tutior vita eius esset, furere s§ simulavit, C., Off., i. 30, 108;
Solon feigned madness that his life might be the safer. (The notion of
Result intrudes.) Pompems ignes fieri prohibuit, quo occultior esset 6ius
adventus, CAES., B.C., in. 30, 5; Pompey forbade fires to be kindled in,
order that his approach, might be the better concealed.
NOTES.— 1. Occasionally, principally in early Latin, the Reflexive seems to be used
with the force merely of a third personal pronoun :
Vitis si macra erit, sarmenta sua concldito minute", CATO, Agr., 37, 3.
But sentences like eum fe"cisse aiunt quod sibi faciundum fuit (PL., Poen., 956),
where the relative clause is but a circumlocution for officium suom, belong properly
under B. 4. Similarly, C., Inv.,i. 33, 55. In the sentence, Cicero tibl mandat, ut
Aristodemo idem dS se respondeas quod de fratre suo respondistl (C., At/., n. 7,
5), d§ fratre eius would jar ou account of the 36 to which it refers.
2. Examples of Reflexives pointing both ways :
I Roman! legates miserunt qui a [Prusia] peterent ne ininucissimum suum
(- BSmanorum) apud s5 (= Prusiam) haberet, NEP., xxin. 12, 2 ; the Romans sent
ambassadors to ask Prusias not to keep their bitterest enemy at his court. Agrippa
Attioum flSns Srabat atque obsecrabat ut sS sib! sulsque reservaret, Cf. NEP.,
xxv. 22, 2 ; Agrippa begged and conjured Atticus with tears to save himself [Atticus]
for him [Agrippa] and for his own family [Atticns] .
Hopeless ambiguity :
HerSs meus dare ill! damnas esto omnia sua, QUINT., TII. 9, 12 ; my heir is to
give him all that is his. .
3. For the sake of clearness, the subj. of the leading sentence is not unfrequently
referred to in the form of the Demonstrative instead of the Reflexive :
( Helvetii i Allobrogibus sesS vel persuasuros exlstimabant vel vl coacturos
ut per suos finSs eos ire paterentur, CAES., B. G-., i. 6, 3 ; the Helvetians thought that
they would persuade or force the Allobroges to let them [the Helvetians] go through
their tenitory.
4. Ipse is always used in its proper distinctive sense ; so, when it represents the
speaker in 0. 0. (660.)
Eius and SuT.
522. Alexander moriens anulum suum dederat Perdiccae, NEP., xvni.
2, 1; Alexander,[vfhen] dying, had given his ring to Perdiccas.
Perdiccas accgperat eius anulum, Perdiccas had received his ring.
Quare Alexander declaraverat sS regnum el commendasse, thereby,
Alexander had declared that he had committed the kingdom to him.
Ex quo Perdiccas conieccrat eum rggnum sibi commendasse, from this
Perdiccas had gathered that he had committed the kingdom to him.
Ex quo omnes coniecerant eum rggnum ei commendasse, from this, all
had gathered that he had committed the kingdom to him.
Perdiccas postulavit ut se regem babgrent cum Alexander anulum sibi
dedisset, Perdiccas demanded that they should have him for king, as
Alexander had given the ring to him.
Amid pOstulaveruut ut omnes eum regem babgrent cum Alexander anu-
OBJECT SENTENCES, 327
ium el dedisset, (his) friends demanded that all should have him for
king, as Alexander had given the ring to him. (Lattmann and Miiller.)
Ita se gesserat Perdiccas ut el regnum ab Alexandra comrnendaretur,
Perdiccas had so behaved himself that the kingdom was intrusted to
him by Alexander.
OBJECT SENTENCES.
523. Verbs of Doing, Perceiving, Conceiving, of Think-
ing and Saying, often take their object in the form of a
sentence.
NOTES.— 1. These sentences are regarded, grammatically, as neuter substantives.
The Accusative of neuter substantives is employed as a Nominative. Hence, a passive
or intransitive verb may take an object sentence as a subject.
2. To object sentences belong also Dependent Interrogative clauses, which have
been treated elsewhere for convenience of reference. See 452, i, N., 460, 467.
I. Object Sentences introduced by QUOD.
524. Clauses which serve merely as periphrases (circumlo-
cutions) or expansions of elements in the leading sentence
are introduced by quod, that.
NOTES.— 1. This usage seems to be in origin explanatory; that is, a demonstrative
in the leading clause is explained by the quod clause. But as the relative can always
include the antecedent demonstrative, the prevailing usage is without an antecedent.
In any case, however, the connection is essentially relative.
2. The original relation of quod and its antecedent is adverbial. They are Accusa-
tives of Extent, that = in that, and are to be classed under the Inner Object (332). But
after transitive verbs quod and its antecedent are felt as Outer Objects, though when-
ever the notion of Cause intrudes (in. that = because), the original relation comes back,
as in causal sentences proper.
3. The antecedent demonstrative (whether omitted or inserted) would therefore be
either the direct object of the verb or it would be in adverbial or prepositional relation.
We have then two uses of the explanatory clause ; (a) with verbs, with or without an
antecedent demonstrative ; (b) as explanatory of an antecedent (expressed or implied)
in adverbial relation to the verb or dependent upon a preposition.
525. i. Quod (the fact that, the circumstance that, in
that) is used to introduce explanatory claiises, after verbs of
Adding and Dropping, and after verbs of Doing and Hap-
pening with an adverb.
Adde hue quod perferri lltterae nulla condicione potuSrunt, POLLIO (C.,
Fam., x. 31, 4); add to this the fact that letters could under no cir-
cumstances be got through. Adde quod ingenuas didicisse fideliter artSs
emollit m5re"s nee sinit esse feros, Ov., Pont., n. 9, 47; add (the fact) that
to have acquired faithfully the accomplishments (education) of a gentle-
man, softens the character, and does not let it be savage. Praetereo quod
328 OBJECT SENTENCES.
earn sib! domain delSgit, C., Cluent., 66,188 ; I pass over the fact thai
he chose that house for himself. Bene facis quod mS adiuvas. C., Fin.,
in. 4, 16 ; you do well (in) that you help me. Accidit perincommode quod
eum nusquam vidistl, C., Att., i. 17, 2 ; it happened very unfortunately
that you saw him nowhere. Bene mihl gvenit quod mittor ad mortem, C.,
Tusc., i. 41, 97; it is fortunate for me that lam sent to death (execution).
NOTES.— 1. Of verbs of Adding adicere is introduced by LIVT, addere is cited
once each from Accius (209, E.) and TERENCE (Ph., 168), then more often from LUCRE-
TIUS, HORACE, and OVID, but not from CICERO and VERGIL. AccBdere is the passive
of addere and occurs at all periods. Of verbs of Dropping, only praetereo, mitto,
and omittO (C., Alt., viii. 3, 3) are cited (all classical).
2. Esse is found mostly in the combinations quid (hoc) est quod, why is it that,
this is why, which are confined to early Latin : Scln quid est quod ego ad 16 veniS 1
PL., Men., 677 ; hoc est quod ad vos veniS, PL., St., 127. Est quod, nihil est quod,
etc., occur here and there later, but the effect of the negative on the mood is noteworthy.
Compare positive sed est quod suscSnset tibl (TER., And., 448) ; there is something
that makes him angry with you, with negative nihil est iam quod mini suscenseas
(PL., Merc., 317) ; there is nothing to make you angry with me.
3. To this group belongs the exclamatory interrogation Quid ? quod, or quid
quod ? what of this, that ?
Quid quod simulac mihi collibitum est praesto est imago ? C., N.D., i. 38, 108;
what is to be said of the fact that the image presents itself as soon as I see Jit ? (Nay,
does not (lie image present itself?)
4. The use of quod after verbs of Doing and Happening is found first in CICERO ;
PLAUTUS uses qnia in this construction.
5. With several of the above-mentioned verbs ut can be employed, as well as quod
(ut, of the tendency — quod, of the fact) :
Ad Appl ClaudI senectutem accedebat ut etiam caecus esset, C., Cat.M., 6, 16
(553, 4), or, quod caecus erat. Accedit quod patrem plus etiam quam ipse scit
amo", C., Alt., xm. 21, 7 ; besides, I love the father even more than he himself knows.
But when the action is prospective or conditional, ut must be used :
Additur ad hanc deflnitionem a Zenone r ect 5 ut ilia oplnio praesentis mall
sit rec6ns, C., Tusc., in. 31, 75.
C. Quod with verbs of Motion as an adverbial Ace. is confined to early Latin and to
venio (PL., Men., 677) and mitt5 (PL., Ps., 639).
7. The extension of quod to verba sentiendl et dicendl is very unusual. One
example in early Latin (PL., Asin., 52) is much disputed ; suspicious examples are C.,
Fam., in. 8,6; CAES., B. C.,i. 23,8, but a certain example is in b.Hisp. (10, 2), re-
nuntiarunt quod habSrent. The only case in Augustan poets is V., A., ix. 289 ; It is
doubtful in LIVT ; perhaps twice in TACITUS (Ann., m. 34 ; xiv. 6). In later Latin,
from PETRONIUS on, it becomes frequent.
2. Quod (in that, as to the fact that) is used to introduce
explanatory clauses after demonstratives (expressed or im-
plied), independent of the leading verb. See 627, R. 2.
Mihl quidem videntur homings hac r5 maxime bestils praestare, quod
loqul possunt, C., Inr., i. 4; to me men seem to excel beasts most in this,
that they have the power of speech. Praeterquam quod fieri non potuit, n6
fingl quidem potest. C., Div., 11. 12, 28; besides the fact that this could
not be done, it could not even be made up. Nil habet InfSlix paupertas
OBJECT SENTENCES. 329
diirius in sS quam quod (= id quod) ridicules homings facit, Juv., in. 152 ;
unhappy poverty hath in itself nothing harder (to bear) than that it
makes people ridiculous. Magnum beneficium [est] naturae quod necesse
est mori, SEN. , E. M. , 101, 14 (204). Quod spiro et placeo, si places, tuum est,
H., 0., iv. 3, 24; that I do breathe and please, if that I please, is thine.
NOTES. — 1. In early usage^the antecedent is not common, but it is employed very
often by CICERO, for the purposes of argument.
2. Prepositional usages with the Abl. are ex e5, d6 e5, in e5, pr5 e5, Cum 63
quod. Of these cum e5 quod, with the proviso that, is very rare, occurring but once
in CICERO (Att., vi. i, 7). The prepositional usages with the Ace. are ad id quod
(only in LIVT) ; super id quod (only in TACITUS) ; praeter quod (FLOKUS and late
writers); prae quod (PLAUTUS only). Similar is excepto quod (HoR., QUINT.). As
praeter and super are comparative in force, we find praeter quam quod (early Latin,
Cic., and later), super quam quod (only in LIVT). Similar to praeter quod is nisi
quod (PLAUT., CICERO [not Orations], SALI,., LIVT, and later). Tantum quod = nisi
quod, once in CICERO (Verr., i. 45, 116) and is rare; tantum quod, temporal, "just," is
colloquial, and found first in CICERO'S Letters, then not till the post-Augustan period.
3. Quod, "as to the fact that," is combined also with, the Subjv. in early Latin:
quod ille gallinam sS sectarl dicat, etc. (PL., If. #., 162). This is explained as being
the Potential Subjv., inasmuch as all the examples cited involve supposed statements or
actions of a second or third (often indefinite) person, which the speaker merely wishes
to anticipate. The usage is occasional, also, later : C., Pis., 27, 66 ; Verr., v. 68, 175, and
sporadically in FRONTO and GAIUS. Sometimes the idea of Partial Obliquity enters, as
in C., Br., 18, 73, quod aequalis fuerit LIvius, minor fuit aliquanto ; Inv., ir. 29,
89, (reading doubtful).
In general the usage of quod, "as to the fact that,'1'1 is familiar. CICERO uses it often
in his Letters. But CAESAR is fond of it too. TACITUS has it but once (Dial., 25).
3. The reigning mood is the Indicative. The Subjunctive
is only used as in Oratid Obliqua.
Cum Castam accusarem nihil magis press! quam quod accusator e"ius prae-
varicationis crimine corruisset, PLIN., Ep., in. g, 34 ; when I accused
Casta there was no point that I laid more stress on than (what I stated)
" that her accuser had gone to pieces under a charge of collusion."
REMARK. — Verbs of Emotion, such as Rejoicing, Sorrowing, etc.,
take quod with the Indie, or Subjunctive. See Causal Sentences, 539.
II. Object Sentences, with Accusative and Infinitive.
526. Preliminary Observation. — On the simple Infinitive
as an object, see 423.
The Inf., as a verbal predicate, has its subject in the Accusative. (420.)
527. Active verbs of Saying, Showing, Believing, and
Perceiving (verba sentiendl et declarandl), and similar ex-
pressions, take the Accusative and Infinitive :
Thales Milesius aquam dixit esse initium rSrum, C., N.D., i. 10, 25;
33O OBJECT SENTENCES.
Thales of Miletus said that ivater was the first principle of things.
[Solon] furere se simulavit, C., Off., i. 30, 108; Solon pretended to be mad.
Medici causa morbi invents curationem esse inventam putant, C., Tusc.,
in. 10, 23; physicians think that, (when) the cause of disease (is) dis-
covered, /he method of treatment is discovered. Volucrgs vidgmus fingere
et construere nidos, C., Or., n. 6, 23; we see that birds fashion and build
nests. Audiet Give's acuisse ferrum, H., 0., \. 2, 21; [the youth] shall
hear that citizens gave edge to steel. Tlmagene's auctor est omnium
in lltteris studiorum antiquissimam musicen extitisse, QUINT., i. 10, 10 ;
Timagenes is the authority (for the statement) that of all intellectual
pursuits music ivas the most ancient.
The sentence very often passes over into the Ace. and Inf. (0. O.)
without any formal notice.
REMARKS. — i. Verba sentiendl comprise two classes, those of (a)
Actual and those of (b) Intellectual Perception. Some verbs, such as
sentlre, vidSre, cernere, audire, belong to both classes. Otherwise the
most common are :
(a) C5nspicarl, conspicere, aspicere, suspicere, prSspicere, also rarely
tuSri and somniare (early).
(b) Intellegere; cognoscere, comperlre, scire, nescire, and less commonly,
but Ciceronian, discere, ignorare, accipere, animadvertere, perspicere,
etc.
2. Verba declarandl can likewise be divided into two classes : (a)
those of Actual and (b) those of Intellectual Representation ; but the
classes often fade into each other, or, rather, a verb of Intellectual
Representation can be readily used as one of Actual Representation.
In general, verbs of Intellectual Representation are those of Thinking,
Remembering, Belief and Opinion, Expectation, Trust and Hope.
Verbs of Actual Representation are those of Saying, Showing, Approv-
ing, Boasting, Pretending, Promising, Swearing, Threatening, Accus-
ing (the last have more often quod). Verbs of Concluding belong
always to both classes. The principal of these verbs are : putare, diicere,
arbitrarf, cSnsSre, suspicarl, credere, exlstimare, meminisse, confidere, spe-
rare, dgsperare. Then dicere, Sdicere, affirmare, confinnare, Si5 (rare),
loqul (rare), negare, fatSrl, narrare, tradere, scrlbere, nuntiare, ostendere,
probare, gloriari, demonstrare, persuadere, significare, pollicerl. promittere,
minarl, simulare, dissimulare, etc.; concludere, colligere, efficere. Also
ponere, to suppose (rare), faeere, to represent. Similar expressions are
spes est, opinio est, fama est, auctor sum, testis sum, certiorem aliquem
faeere, etc.
3. When the subj. of the Inf. is a personal or reflexive pronoun, that
subj. may be omitted — chiefly with Fut. Inf. — and then esse also is
dropped. This occurs rarely in CICEKO, more frequently in early
Latin, CAESAR, and later.
OBJECT SENTENCES. 33!
BefrSetur5s carcerem minabantur, L., vi. 17, G ; they threatened to
break open the jail.
4. The simple Inf. is often used in English, where the Latin takes
Ace. and Infinitive. This is especially true of verbs of Hoping and
Promising. Sp6ro me hoc adepturum esse, / hope to (that I shall) obtain
this. Promitte'bat sS venturum esse, he promised to (that he would)
come.
5. When the Ace. with the Inf. is followed by a dependent Ace.,
ambiguity may arise :
Aio tS, Aeacida, Bomanos vincere posse (C., Div., n. 56, 116), in which
t6 may be subject or object.
Real ambiguity is to be avoided by giving the sentence a passive
turn :
Ai5 a t5, Aeacida, Bomanos vinci posse, I affirm that the Romans can
be conquered by thee, son of Aeacus.
Aio te, Aeacida, a Bomanis vinci posse, / affirm that thou, son of
Aeacus, canst be conquered by the Romans.
When the context shows which is the real subj., formal ambiguity
is of no importance. But see QUINT., vn. 9, 10.
NOTES.— 1. Verbs of Perception and Representation take the Part, to express the
actual condition of the object of Perception or Representation (536). As there is no Pr.
Part, pass., the Inf. must be used, and thus the difference between Intellectual and Actual
Perception is effaced, sometimes even in the active, and, in fact, the use of the Part,
is confined to authors who are consciously influenced by a rivalry with the Greek.
Audio civSs acuentes ferrum, Cf. H., 0., i. 2, 21 ; I hear citizens sharpening) the
steel. Audid a civibus acul ferrum, I hear that the steel is sharpened by citizens ;
or, the steel as it is sharpened by citizens. Octavium (dolore) conficl vldl, C., fin.,
n. 28, 93 ; / have seen Octamus (when he was) wearing met with anguish. Vldl
histriones flentes Sgredl, QUINT., vi. 2, 35 ; I have seen actors leave the stage weep-
ing.
(Plat5) a Deo aedificarl mundum facit, C., N.D., i. 8, 19 ; Plato makes out that
the universe is built by God. Polyphemum Homerus cum ariete conloquentem
facit, C., Two., v. 39, 115 (536). Fac, quaeso, qul ego sum esse tS, C., Fam., vn. 23,
1 ; suppose, I pray, yourself to be me.
2. The (Greek) attraction of the predicate of the Inf. into the Nom. after the Verb
of Saying or Thinking, is poetical ; the first example is PL., Asin., 634.
Phaselus ille, quern vicietis, hospites, ait fuisse navium celerrimus, CAT.,
iv. i ; that pinnace yonder, which -lov cee, my stranger guests, declares she used to be
(claims to have been) the fastest craft ajioat.
There is one example in CICERO (Agr., n. 21, 57).
3. The use of the Ace. and Inf. with verba dSclarandl is an outgrowth of the use
after verbs of Creation (423), just as in English "I declare him to be," is an extension
of " I make him to be," in which Ace. and Inf. have each its proper force. This is the
origin of the so-called OratiS Obliqua, or Indirect Discourse, which represents not the
exact language used, but the general drift, and in which the tenses of the Inf. seem to
represent approximately the tenses of the Indicative. It was to complete the scheme of
the Tenses that the Fut. Inf. was developed, and this is the sole use of that tense. The
use of the Ace. and Inf. after verba sentiendi, like the use in English " I see him go,"
is more primitive, but the original case of the Inf. is no longer felt.
332 NOMINATIVE AYITH INFINITIVE.
Nominative with Infinitive.
528. Passive verbs of Saying, Showing, Believing, and
Perceiving :
1. In the Simple tenses prefer the personal construction,
in which the Accusative Subject of the Infinitive appears as
the Nominative Subject of the leading verb.
2. In the Compound tenses prefer the impersonal con-
struction, which is the rule with Gerund and Gerundive.
Thus, instead of
Tradunt Homerum caecum fuisse, they say that Homer was Hind,
we should have,
Traditur HomSrus caecus fuisse, Homer is said to have been blind,
or,
[Traditum] est HomSrum caecum foisse, C., Tusc., v. 39, 114 ; there is
a tradition that Homer was blind.
[Aristaeus] inventor olel esse dicitur, C., Verr., iv. 57, 128 ; Aristaeus
is said to be the inventor of oil. Terenti fabellae propter elegantiam ser-
monis putabantnr a Laelio scrlbl, C., Att., vii. 3, 10 ; Terence's plays, on
account of the elegance of the language, were thought to be written by
Laelius. [SI VSios migrabimus] amlsisse patriam vidsbimur, L.,v. 53,
5 ; if we remove to Veji, we shall seem to have lost our country. Ecus
damnatum Irl videbatur, QUINT., ix. 2, 88 (435, N. 4). Creditor Pythago-
rae auditor em fuisse Numam, L., XL. 29, 8 ; it is believed that Numa
was a hearer of Pythagoras.
But:
[Venerem] Adonidi nupsisse proditum est, C., N.D., in. 23, 59 ; it is re-
corded that Venus married Adonis. (Philonem) existimandum est diser-
tum fuisse, C., Or., i. 14, 62 ; we must suppose that Philo was eloquent.
REMARKS. — i. The impersonal construction is the rule if a Dat. is
combined with the verb : mih! nuntiabatur Parthos transisse Euphratem,
C., Fain., xv. i, 2 ; it was announced to me that the Parthians had
crossed the Euphrates.
2. Various peculiarities are noteworthy in the matter of these verbs.
Thus, dicitur usually means it is maintained, dictum est, it is said.
CrSditur, etc. (impersonal), is the regular form in classical prose ; the
personal construction is poetical and late. Vidfirl is used, as a rule,
personally ; the impersonal construction vidstur is rare. The active
forms traduut, crSdunt, etc., are everywhere common.
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 333
NOTES. — 1. In early Latin the personal construction is found with argul, cluei'e (a
virtual passive), did, existimari, inveniri, iuberl, nuntiarl, perhiberi, reperlrl.
All these, except cluere, are retained in the classical period. CICERO and CAESAR
add twenty-five new verbs, and from this time on the construction increases.
2. Virtual passives, on the analogy of cluSre, are rare ; apparere, constare, venire
in suspicionem, are Ciceronian ; so also opusest in [C.], Fam., xi. u, 2, and perhaps
TER., Anil., 337.
3. A second clause following a Nom. with the Inf. takes Its Bubj. in the Accusative
C., Or., n. 74, 299.
4. In verbs of Saying, except dtc5 (compare TAC., Ann., iv. 34, &), the personal con-
struction fs confined to the third person. The poets are free in treating verbs under this
head.
Tenses of the Infinitive with Verba SentiendT et Decla-
randT.
529. The Infinitive denotes only the stage of the action,
and determines only the relation to the time of the leading
verb (281).
530. After verbs of Saying, Showing, Believing, and Per-
ceiving, and the like,
The Present Infinitive expresses contemporaneous action ;
The Perfect Infinitive expresses prior action ;
The Future Infinitive expresses future action.
REMARK. — The action which is completed with regard to the leading
verb may be in itself a continued action. So in English : / have been
studying, I had been studying. Hence, the Impf . Indie. (/ was study-
ing) is represented in this dependent form by the Pf. Inf., because it is
prior to the leading verb.
B^" In this table the Present is taken as the type of the Principal,
the Imperfect as the type of the Historical, Tenses.
531. Contemporaneous Action.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
P. T. DIcit : t5 errare, te dScipI,
He says, that you are going wrong, that you are (being) deceived (217, R.).
H. T. DIc6bat : tS errare, . tS dScipi,
He was saying, that you were- going that you were (being) deceived,
wrong,
Prior Action.
P. T. DIcit : te errasse, te deceptum esse,
He says, that you have gone wrong, that you have been (are) deceived,
that you went wrong, that you were deceived (AoR.),
that you have been going (that people have been deceiving you/,
wrong,
334 TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.
B. T. Dlceoat : te errasse, te deceptum esse,
lie was saying, (fiat you had gone that you had been deceived,
wrong,
that you went wrong, that you were deceived (AoR.),
that you had been (that people had been deceiving you),
going wrong,
Subsequent Action.
P. T. Dicit: te erraturuni esse, te deceptum iri,
He says, that you (are about to go that you (are going to) will be de-
wrong), will (be) go(ing) wrong, ceived.
II . T. DlcSbat : te erraturum esse, te deceptum iri,
He was saying, that you were about that you were going to (would) be
to (would) go wrong, deceived.
\.
Periphrastic Future.
The following form (the Periphrastic Future) is necessary when the verb has no
Sup. or Fut. participle. It is often formed from other verbs to intimate an interval,
which cannot be expressed by other forms, and is more common in the passive than
the Fut. Inf. pass, of the paradigms.
P. T. DIcit : fore (futurum esse) ut er- fore ut decipiaris (metuaris),
res < metuas ',
fore (fu.turn.in esse) ut erra- fore ut deceptus sis (rare), usually
veris (rare), deception, fore (not futurum
H. T. Dicebat : fore (futurum esse) ut fore ut deciperSris (metuer€ris>,
errares (metueres), deceptum fore (rarely : fore ut de-
errass6s (rare), ceptus ess6s).
NOTES.— 1. For examples of the Periphrastic, see 248.
Carthaginienses debellatum mox fore rebantur, L., xxm. 13, 6 ; the Cartha-
ginians thought that the war would soon be (have been) brought to an end. From
debellatum exit, it will be (have been) brought to an end. So in the deponent adep-
tum fore.
2. Ponderous periphrastics are of rare occurrence. So fetiales decreverunt
utrum eorum fecisset rectS facturum (L., xxxi. 8) ; not fore ut fecisset, although
the O. R. requires utrum feceris, r6ct6 fecerfs. (244, B. 4.) See Weissenborn's
note.
3. Fosse, velle, etc., do not require the Periphrastic, and seldom take it. (248, R.)
4. Sperare, to hope, promittere (polliceri), to promise, which regularly take the
Fut. Inf., have occasionally the Pr. when an immediate realisation of the hope is antici-
pated. With sp6s est the Pr. Inf. is more common.
Legati veniunt qul pollieeantur obsides dare, CABS., B. &., iv. 21, 5; ambassa-
dors come to promise the giving of (to give) hostages.
So, too, when the Fut. Inf. is not available, sometimes also when it is. posse and
the Pr. is a fair substitute. TotJus Galliae sSsg potlrl posse (= pottturos esse)
sp6rant, CAES.. B. G., i. 3, 8 ; they hope they can (ivitt) get possession of the whole oj
Gaul. See 423, N. 5.
Of course spe*rare may be used simply as a verb of Thinking.
ACCUSATIVE AND INFINITIVE. 335
Accusative and Infinitive with Verbs of Will and Desire.
532. Verbs of Will and Desire take a Dependent Accusa-
tive and Infinitive.
The relation is that of an Object to be Effected.
SI vis mS flgre, dolendum est primum ipsi tibi, H., A. P., 102; if you
wish me to weep, you must first feel the pang yourself. Utrum [Milonis]
corporis an Pythagorae tib! malls vires ingenii darl ? C., Cat. M., 10, 33;
which (whether) would you rather have given to you, Milo's strength of
body or Pythagoras' strength of mind ? Ipse iubet mortis t§ meminisse
deus, MART., u. 59 (376). Vltae summa brevis spem nos vetat inchoare
longam, H.,0.,i. 4, 15 (423, N. 6). N5mo ire quemquam publics pro-
bibet via, PL.. Cure., 35 (389). Germain vinum ad sS oninlno impor-
tarl non sinunt, CAES., B. &., iv. 2, 6; the Germans do not permit wine
to be imported into their country at all.
REMARKS. — i. A list of these verbs is given in 423, N. 2.
2. When the subj. of the Inf. is the same as the subj. of the leading
verb, the subj. of the Inf. is usually not expressed :
Nl pargre velis, pereundum erit ante lucernas, Juv., x. 339 ; unless you
resolve to obey, you will have to perish before candle-light. Et iam mal-
let equos numquam tetigisse paternos, Ov., M., n. 182; and now he could
have wished rather never to have touched his father's horses.
But the subj. may be expressed, and commonly is expressed, when
the action of the Inf. is not within the power of the subject ; so espe-
cially with an Inf. .passive :
(Timoleon) maluit s6 diligi quain metui, NEP., xx. 3, 4; Timoleon pre-
ferred that he should be loved rather than that he should be feared.
Ego rus abituram m6 certo dScrSvl, TER., Hec., 586. Principem s5 esse
mavult quam viderl, C., Off., i. 19, 65.
NOTES.— 1. On the construction of this class of verbs with ut (nS, quominus), see
546. Impero, I command, in model prose takes only the Inf. passive or deponent; in
SALLUST, HIRTIUS, CURTIUS, TACITUS, and the Poets sometimes the active.
(Hannibal) imperavit quam plurinias venenatas serpentes vivas colligl,
NEP., 23, 10 ; Hannibal ordered as many poisonous serpents as possible to be caught
alive.
Permitto seldom takes the Inf. (e.g., C., Verr., v. 9, 22); the Ace. with Inf. begins in
TACITUS ; concede takes Inf. pass, only, in classical prose. Iube5, Ibid ; sino, I let ;
veto, I forbid ; prohibeo, / prohibit, always have the Inf. of passive verbs. With
sino and vet5 the model construction is Inf. only. Sin5 takes ut occasionally hi
early and late Latin, vet5 does not have ne till in the post-Ciceronian period. InbSre
takes ut when it is applied to decrees of the Senate, and from LIVY on when used of the
orders of generals ; prohib§re takes n6 and quominus. These verbs may themselves
be turned into the passive : iubeor, sinor, vetor, prohibeor.
2. After iube5, Ibid, and veto, I forbid, the Inf. act. can be used without a subj.
(even an imaginary or indefinite one) :
Iubet reddere, he bids return (orders the returning).
336 ACCUSATIVE AND INFINITIVE.
Vetat adhibSre medicinam, 0., Alt., xvi. 15, 5 ; he forbids the administration of
mediant. Infandum, rSglna, iubes renovare dolorem, V., A., n. 3 ; unspeakable,
0 queen, the anguish u'hich you bid (me, us) revive.
3. After volo, nolo, malo in early Latin, ut and the Snbjv. is proportionally
more common than in the classical time. But with the Potential forms, velim, ma-
lim, vellem, mallem, CICERO uses only the Subjv. (without ut). When volo means
maintain, it takes the Inf. only ; see 546, K. i.
4. It is noteworthy that in classical Prose cupere never takes ut, while optare
never takes the Infinitive.
5. On the use of the Pf . Inf. instead of the Pr. after these verbs, see 537, N. i.
6. The Poets go much further in using verbs and phrases as expressions of Will and
Desire. See 423, N. 4.
Accusative and Infinitive with Verbs of Emotion.
533. Verbs of Emotion take a dependent Accusative and
Infinitive, inasmuch as these verbs may be considered as
verbs of Saying and Thinking. (542.)
Salvoin tS advSnisse gaudeo, TEH,., Ph., 286 ; I rejoice that you should
have arrived safe (to think that you have arrived safe, at your arriving
safe). Quod salvos advgnistl, that you have arrived safe. Quod salvos
advenerls, that (as you say) you have arrived safe.
Inferiores non dolere [debent] s6 a suls dlguitate superari, C., Lad., 20,
71 ; inferiors ought not to consider it a grievance that they are sur-
passed in rank by their own (friends).
REMARKS. — i. This construction, outside of a few verbs, is not com-
mon, though found in a wide range of authors. Gaudere, laetarl, dolgre,
querl (beginning in Cic.), mlrari, are common ; in addition CICERO uses,
rarely, however, more than once each, maerere, lugere, coufici, discruciarl,
angi, sollicitari, indignari, fremere, demirarl, admlrarl, subesse timorem.
Early Latin shows ridSre (NAEV.), gestire, mihl dolet (TER.), maestus sum
(PLAUT.), cruciari (PLAUT.), lamentarl (PLAUT., HOR.), susplrare (LucR.),
incendor ira (TER.), ferSx est (PLAUT.), invidSre (PLAUT., HOR.), formldare,
vereri, in addition to the common gaudgre, etc., already cited.
2. On the Participle after a verb of Emotion, 536, N. 2.
Accusative and Infinitive in Exclamations.
534. The Accusative with the Infinitive is used in Excla-
mations and Exclamatory Questions as the object of an un-
expressed thought or feeling.
Hem, mea lux, t5 nunc, mea Terentia, sic vexarl, C., Fam., xiv. 2, 2;
h'm, light of my life, for you to be so harassed now, Terentia dear.
Hominemne Bomanum tarn GraecS loqul T PLIN., Ep., TV. 3, 5 ; a Roman
speak such good Greek ? (To think that a Roman should speak such
ACCUSATIVE AND INFINITIVE. 337
good Greek.) M5ne incepto dSsistere — ? V., A., i. 37; I— desist from my
undertaking 9 Hinc abire matrem? TER., Hec., 612 ; mother go away
from here ?
REMARKS. — i. Different is quod, which gives the ground.
Ei mihi quod nullis amor est sanabilis herbls, Ov., M., i. 523; woe's me
that (in that, because) love is not to be cured by any herbs.
2. On ut, with the Subjv. in a similar sense, see 558. Both forms
offer an objection.
Accusative and Infinitive as a Subject.
535. The Accusative with the Infinitive may be treated as
the Subject of a sentence. The Predicate is a substantive or
neuter adjective, an impersonal verb or abstract phrase.
In the English " for— to," the "for " belongs not to the case but to the Infinitive, but
the object relation has been effaced here as it has been in Latin. See 422, N. 1.
Est inusitatum rggem reum capitis esse, C., Dei., i. i ; it is an extra-
ordinary thing that a king should (for a king to) be tried for his life.
Facinus est vincire civem Roinanum, C., Verr., v. 66, 170; it is an outrage
to put a Roman citizen in chains. Necesse est facere sumptum qul quaerit
(= eum qul quaerit) lucrum, PL., As., 218; need is that he make outlay
who an income seeks. Legem brevem esse oportet, qu5 facilius ab imperltls
teneatur, SEN., E.M., 94, 38; it is proper that a law should be briej
(a law ought to be brief), that it may the more easily be grasped by the
uneducated. Quid Milords intererat interficl Clodium, C., Mil., 13, 34
(382, 2). Opus est tS animo valSre, C., Fam., xvi. 14, 2 (406, N. 5).
REMARKS. — i. A list of expressions taking the Inf. as a subj. is given
in 422, NN.
2. Oportet, it is proper, and necesse est, must needs, are often used
with the Subjunctive. So also many other phrases with ut. (See 557.)
Necesse also takes the Dat. of the Person :
Ut culpent alii, tibi m5 laudare necesse est, Ov., Her., 12, 131 ; let others
blame, but you must give me praise.
3. When the indirect obj. of the leading verb is the same as the
subj. of the Inf. the predicate of the subj. is put in the same case as the
indirect object : in standard prose chiefly with licet, it is left (free) ;
in poetry and later prose with necesse, with satius est, it is better, con-
tingit, it happens, vacat, there is room.
Licuit esse otioso Themistocli, C., Tusc., i. 15, 33 ; Themistocles was
free to live a life of leisure.
The Ace. is occasionally found ; always if the Dat. is not expressed.
Medios esse iam n5n licebit (nos), C., Alt., x. 8, 4; it will no longer be
allowable to be neutral.
338 CAUSAL SENTENCES.
Object Sentences Represented by the Participle.
536. The Participle is used after verbs of Perception and
Representation, to express the actual condition of the object
of perception or representation.
Catonem vldl in bibliotheca sedenteni multis circumfusum Stoicorum
librls, C., Fin., in. 2, 7 ; I saw Cato sitting in the library with an ocean
of Stoic books about him. Prodiga non sentit pereuntem femina censum,
Juv., vi. 362 ; the lavish woman does not perceive (how) the income (is)
dwindling. Saepe illam audlvl furtlva voce loquentem, CAT., LXVII. 41 ;
I have often heard her talking in a stealthy (in an under-) tone. Gauds
quod spectant ocull t6 mille loquentem, II., Ep., i. 6, 19 (542). PolyphS-
mum Homerus cum ariete conloquentem facit, C., Tusc., v. 39, 115 ; Homer
represents Polyphemus (as) talking with the ram.
NOTES.— 1. This cons traction is found but once in early Latin (Piso), then in CICERO,
S*T.T.TTST, NEPOS, VITBUVIUS, LIVT, HORACE. The naturalisation of it is due to CICERO,
and other students of Greek models. The poverty of Latin in participles was a serious
drawback to the convenient distinction from the Infinitive ; and it may be said that the
participle was never perfectly at home.
2. On the Inf., see 527, N. 1. The Greek construction of Part, agreeing with the
leading Nom. after verbs of Perception and Emotion, is rare and poetical :
Gaudent scrfbentSs, H.,.Ep.,ii. 2, 107; they have joy while writing. SSnsit
medios delapsus in hostgs, V., A., n. 377 ; he perceived (it) having fallen (that he had
fallen} 'midst the enemy. Gaudent perfusl sanguine fratrum, V., G., n. 510 ; they
rejoice, bedrenched with brothers* blood.
537. The Perfect Participle Passive is used after verbs of
Causation and Desire, to denote impatience of anything ex-
cept entire fulfilment :
Si qul voluptatibus ducuntur missSs faciant honorgs, C., Sest., 66, 138 ;
if any are led captive by sensual pleasures , let them dismiss honours (at
once and forever). Hulc mandes si quid rScte" curatum veils, TER., Ad.,
372 ; you must intrust to him whatever you want properly attended to.
NOTES.— 1. After verbs of Will and Desire, the Inf. esse is occasionally found with
this Part., and hence it may be considered a Pf. Infinitive (280, 2, c). Compare, how-
ever, Pf. Part. pass, with opus est, usus est (406).
2. The verbs of Causation thus employed are curSre, dare, facere, reddere. The
usage is most common in early Latin. In the classical period oiily missum facere.
CAUSAL SENTENCES.
538. Causal sentences are introduced :
1. By quia, because, quod, (in that) because. \
2. By quoniam (quom iam), now that, quandfl, quandd- > ;
quidem, since. } Pr°Per'>
CAUSAL SENTENCES. 339
3. By cum (quom), as. (Inference.)
4. By the Relative Pronoun, partly alone, partly with ut, utpote,
qnlppe, etc. (See 626, 634.)
NOTES.— 1. Quod is the Ace. Sing, neuter, and quia is probably the Ace. PI. neuter
from the relative stem. They have accordingly often a correlative demonstrative ; so
with quod : eo, ea re", ideo, iclcirco, ea gratia (in SALLUST only), hoc, hac mente
(H., S., ii. 2, 90), propterea, and a few combinations with ob and propter ; with quia
are found eo, ea re", ide5, idcirco, propterea, and ergo (in PLAUTUS only).
2. Quod and quia differ in classical prose, chiefly in that quod is used, and not
quia, when the causal sentence is at the same time an object sentence.
3. Quoniam is originally temporal, and as such is still found in PLAUTUS. The
causal use of it becomes much more extensive in classical prose, and, like quandO
(quandoquidem), it is used of evident reasons.
4. Quando is used principally as a temporal particle. In a causal sense it is very
rare in CICERO (in the Orations never, unless compounded with quidem), and is not
found in CAESAK. The compound with quidem is more common.
5. Quatenus, in so far as, is poetical and in late prose. HORACE shows first ex-
ample, 0., in. 24, 30. VALERIUS M., Q.UINTILIAN, TACITUS, PLINY MINOR, and SUE-
TONIUS show occasional examples.
Causal Sentences with QUOD, QUIA, QUONIAM, and QUANDO.
539. Causal sentences with quod, quia, quoniam, and
quando are put in the Indicative, except in oblique relation
(Partial or Total).
REMARK. — The other person of the oblique clause may be imaginary,
and the writer or speaker may quote from himself indirectly :
Laetatus sum, quod mihi lice"ret recta defendere, C., Fam., i. 9, 18 ; 1
was glad (to say to myself) that I was free to champion the right.
540. Causal sentences with quod, quia, quoniam, and
quando take the Indicative in Direct Discourse.
Torquatus filium suura quod is contra imperium in hostem pugnaverat
necarl iiissit, S., C., 52, 30 ; Torquatus bade his son be put to death
because he had fought against the enemy contrary to order(s) [quod
pugnasset = because, as Torquatus said or thought]. Amantes d6 forma
iudicare non possunt, quia sensum oculdrum praecipit animus, QUINT., vi.
2, 6 ; lovers cannot Judge of beauty, because the heart forestalls the eye.
Quia natura mutarl non potest idcirco vSrae amlcitiae sempiternae snnt,
C., Lael., 9, 32; because nature cannot change, therefore true friend-
ships are everlasting. Neque me" vixisse paenitet quoniam ita vlxl ut non
frustra me" natum exlstumem, C., Cat.M., 23, 84 ; and I am not sorry
for having lived, since I have so lived that I think I was born not in
vain. Solus ero quoniam n5n licet esse tuum, PROP., n. 9, 46 ; I shall be
alone since I may not be thine. Voluptas sSmovenda est quandS ad mai5ra
quaedam nati sumus, Cf, C., Fin., v, 8, 21; pleasure is to be put aside
34O CAUSAL SENTENCES.
because we are born for greater things. Erant quibus appetentior famae
[Helvidius] vidgrStur quando etiam sapientibus cupidS gloriae novissima
exuitur, TAC., H., iv. 6, 1 ; there were some to whom Helvidius seemed
too eager for fame, since, even from the wise, ambition is the last
(infirmity) that is put off. Sequitur ut liberatorgs (sint), quandoquidem
tertium nihil potest esse, C., Ph., n. 13, 31.
541. Causal sentences with quod, quia, quoniam, and
quando take the Subjunctive in Oblique Discourse (Partial
or Total).
Noctu ambulabat in publics Themistocles quod somnum capere non pos-
set, C., Tusc., IT. 1 9, 44 ; Themistocles used to walk about in public
at night because (as he said) he could not get to sleep. Aristldes nonne
ob earn causam expulsus est patria quod praeter modum iustus esset ?
C., Tusc., v. 36, 105 ; (there is) Aristides ; was he not banished his coun-
try for the (alleged) reason " that he was unreasonably just " ? [NS]
compone comas quia sis venturus ad illam, Ov., Hem. Am., 679 (517).
Quoniam (so most MSS.) ipse pr5 sS dlcere non posset, verba fScit frater
elus St6sagoras, NEP., i. 7, 5; "as [Miltiades] could not speak for him-
self," his brother, Stesagoras, made a speech. (Indirect quotation from
the speech of Stesagoras.)
A good example is PL., M.G., 1412-15.
NOTES.— 1. Quia is the usual particle in the caueal sense in PLAUTUS, quod being
very rare ; but quod is more common in TERENCE, and is the regular particle in clas-
sical prose (CAESAR has but one case of quia), though the use of quia revives in post-
classical Latin. CICERO makes a point on the difference in meaning in Rose. Am., 50,
145 : coneSdo et quod (by reason of the fact that) animus aequus est, et quia
(because) necesse est.
2. A rejected reason is introduced by non quod with the Snbjv. (as being the sug-
gestion of another person). The Indie., which is properly used of excluded facts, is
also used of flat denials, like the negative and Indie, in the independent sentence, but
the Subjv. is the rule. N 5n quia is the rule in early Latin, but classical prose shows
very few examples. From LIVY on it becomes common. Other equivalents are n5n
qu5, n5n e5 quod, n5n eS qu5 ; further, n5n quin for n5n qu5 n5n. All of these are
found with Subjv. only. The corresponding affirmative is given by sed quod or sed
quia indiscriminately, regularly with the Indicative.
Subjunctive :
Pugiles in iactandis caestibus ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia
profundenda voce omne corpus intenditur venitque plaga vebementior, C.,
Tusc., ii. 23, 56; boxers In plying the caestus heave groans, not that (as you might sup-
pose) they are in pain, but because in giving full vent to the voice all the body is put to
the stretch and the blow comes with a greater rush. Maiorgs nostrl in dominion d6
servS quaerl n51u6runt ; non quin posset v6rum inveniri, sed quia videbatur
indignum esse, C., Mil., 22, 59 ; our ancestors would not allow a slave to be questioned
by toi'ture against his master, not because (not as though they thought) the truth could
not be got at, but because such a course seemed degrading. A [Lacedaemoniorum
exulibus] praetor vim arcuerat, n5n quia salvSs vellet sed quia perire causa
indicta nolebat, L., xxxvui. 33, 11 ; the praetor had warded off violence from the
CAUSAL SENTENCES. 34!
Lacedaemonian exiles, not (as you might have supposed) because he wished them to
escape, but because he did not wish them to perish with their case not pleaded (unheard).
The same principle applies to magis quod (qu5), quia— quam qu5 (first in CICERO),
quod (first in SALLUST), quia (first in LIVY), with the moods in inverse order.
Libertatis originem inde, magis quia annuum imperium consularc factum
est quam quod deminutum quidquam sit ex regia potestate, numerSs, L., n.
i, 7 ; you may begin to count the origin of liberty from that point, rather because the
consular government was limited to a year, than because aught was taken away from
the royal power.
Indicative :
Sum non dlcam miser, sed certe exercitus, non quia multis debeo sed quia
saepe concurrunt aliquorum bene de m6 merit5rum inter ipsos contentionSs,
C., Plane., 32, 78 ; lam, / will not say, wretched, but certainly worried, not because I
am in debt to many, but because the rival claims of some ivho have deserved well of me
often conflict. Compare also H., S., n. 2, 89.
3. Verbs of Saying and Thinking are occasionally put in the Subjv. with quod by
a kind of attraction. Compare 585, N. 3.
Impetrare non potui, quod religione sS impedirl dicerent, C., Fam., iv. 12, 3 ;
I could not obtain permission, because they said they were embarrassed (prevented) by
a religious scruple (= quod impedirentur, because (as they said) they were prevented).
This attraction is said to occur not unf requently in CICERO, several times in CAESAB
and SALLUST, but is not cited from any other author. Compare, however, crSderent,
L., xxi. i, 3.
4. On the use of tamquam, etc., to indicate an assumed reason, see 602, N. 4.
5. Quandoque is archaic and rare. It is found first in the Twelve Tables, a few
times in CICERO and LIVY, three times in HORACE, and occasionally later.
6. Causal sentences may be represented by a participle (669), or by the relative (636).
QUOD with Verbs of Emotion.
542. Quod is used to give the ground of Emotions and Ex-
pressions of Emotion, such as verbs of Joy, Sorrow, Sur-
prise, Satisfaction and Anger, Praise and Blame, Thanks
and Complaint.
The rule for the Mood has been given already : 539.
Indicative :
Gauds quod spectant ocull t5 mflle loquentem, H., Ep., i. 6, 19 ; rejoice
that a thousand eyes are gazing at you (while you are) speaking. Dolet
mihl quod tu nunc stomacharis, C., ad Br., i. 17, 6 ; it pains me that you
are angry now. Qulntum paenitet quod animum tuum offendit, Cf. C. , Alt. ,
XP. 13, 2(377, R. 3). luvat mg quod vigent studia, PLIN., Ep., i. 13, 1 ; /
am charmed that studies are flourishing. Tristis es ? indignor quod sum
tibi causa doloris, Ov., Tr., iv. 3, 33; are you sad ? I am provoked (with
myself) that I am a cause of pain to you. Tibi gratias ago, quod mS
omnI molestiS liberastl, C., Fam., xm. 62; / thank you, that you freed
me from all annoyance.
Subjunctive :
Gaudet miles quod vicerit hostem, Ov., Tr., n. 49 ; the soldier rejoices
342 SENTENCES OF DESIGN AND TENDENCY.
at having conquered the enemy. Neque mini umquam veniet in mentem
poenitere quod a me ipse non desclverim, C., Att., n. 4, 2 ; it ivill never
occur to me to be sorry for not having been untrue to myself. Laudat
Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinSns, C., Off., n. 22, 76 ; Panaetiu*
praises Africanus for having been abstinent. NgrnS est Sratorem quod
LatlnS loqueretur admiratus, C., Or., in. 14, 52; no one (ever) admired an,
orator for speaking (good) Latin. Socrates accusatus est quod corrumpe-
ret iuventutem, QUINT., iv. 4, 5 ; Socrates was accused of corrupting
youth. Meminl gloriarl solitum esse Qulntum HortSnsium quod numquam
bello civil! interfuisset, C., Fam., n. 16, 3; I remember that Quintus Hor-
tensius used to boast of never having engaged in civil war. Agunt gra-
tias quod sib! pepercissent, CAES., B.C., i. 74, 2 (511, E. i).
REMARK. — This class of verbs may be construed with the Ace. and
Inf. : salvom te advenisse gaudeo (533) ; also with quia, principally in
early Latin, and in CICERO'S Letters, then occasionally in LIVY, TACI-
TUS, SUETONIUS, and later. But in Expressions of Praise and Blame,
Thanks and Complaint, quod is more common. On cum, see 564, N. 2.
Am5 te et n5n neglexisse habeo gratiam, TER., Ph., 54; Hove you
(= much obliged), and I am thankful to you for not having neglected,
(it). Gratulor ingeidum nBn latuisse tuum, Ov., Tr., i. 9, 54; I congratu-
late (you) that your genius has not lain hidden. [Tsocrates] queritur plus
honoris corporum quam animorum virtutibus darl, QUINT., ni. 8, 9 ; Iso-
crates complains that more honour is paid to the virtues of the body than
to those of the mind.
NOTES.— 1. Perplexing Emotion (Wonder) may be followed by a Conditional, or by
a Dependent Interrogative, as in English, but this construction is not found in VERGIL,
CAESAB, SALLUST, and is never common.
Mlror si [ Tarquinius] quemquam amlcum habere potuit, C., Lad., 15, 54 ; 1
wonder if Tarquin could ever have had a friend.
Besides mlror (and mlrum), there is one case of gaudeo si in CICEKO ( Yen:, TV. 17,
37), and a few cases after expressions of Fear in TACITUS. There are also sporadic cases
of indlgnarl (indlgnitas) si.
2. Noteworthy is the phrase mlrum (-a) Hi (nisi), 'tis a wonder that— not, which
belongs to the colloquialisms of early Latin (Pi,., Capt., 820), but reappears once in Lrvrr.
SENTENCES OF DESIGN AND TENDENCY.
543. i. Sentences of Design are commonly called Final
Sentences. Sentences of Tendency are commonly called
Consecutive Sentences. Both contemplate the end — the one,
as an aim ; the other, as a consequence.
2. They are alike in having the Subjunctive and the par-
ticle ut (how, that}, a relative conjunction.
FINAL SENTENCES. 343
3. They differ in the Tenses employed. The Final Sen-
tence, as a rule, takes only the Present and Imperfect Sub-
junctive. Consecutive Sentences may take also Perfect and
Pluperfect.
4. They differ in the kind of Subjunctive employed. The
Final Sentence takes the Optative. The Consecutive Sen-
tence takes the Potential. Hence the difference in the
Negative.
Final : n8 (ut n6), -Consecutive : ut n5n, that not.
n6 quis, ut nemo, that no one.
nS ullus, ut nullus, ////// no.
n8 umquam, (ne quand5,) ut numquam, that never,
ne usquam, (ngcubi,) ut niisquam, that nowhere.
n§ aut — aut, (ut n8ve — neve,) ut neque — neque, that neither — nor.
REMARKS. — i. Verbs of Effecting have the Final Sequence.
2. Verbs of Hindering have the sequence of the Final Sentence, but
often the signification of the Consecutive.
3. Verbs of Fearing belong to the Final Sentence only so far as they
have the Optative Subjunctive ; the subordinate clause is only semi-
dependent upon the principal, and we have a partial survival of orig-
inal parataxis.
NOTES.— 1. Inasmuch as the Subjv. cannot express a fact, the Latin Consecutive
clause does not properly express actual result, but only a tendency, which may, we
infer, lead to a result. To obviate this difficulty, the Latin has recourse to the circum-
locutions with accidit, 6venit, etc.
2. It is to be remarked that the difference between Final and Consecutive often con-
sists only in the point of view. What is final from the point of view of the doer is
consecutive from the point of view of the spectator ; hence the variation in sequence
after verbs of Effecting. A frustrated purpose gives a negative result ; hence the varia-
tion in negative after verbs of Hindering.
3. Here and there hi CICERO, more often hi LIVT and later writers, instead of n§va
(neu), a second clause is added by neque, the force of the final particle being felt
throughout the sentence.
Monitor tuus suadebit tibi ut nine discedas neque mini verbuin ullum
respondeas, C., Din. in Caec., 16, 52 ; your adviser wiM caunselyou to depart hence and
answer me never a word.
FINAL SENTENCES.
544. Final Sentences are divided into two classes :
I. Final Sentences in which the Design is expressed by
the particle ; Pure Final Sentences (Sentences of Design).
Oportet Ssse, ut vivas, n6n vivere ut edas, [C.], ad Her., iv. 28, 39; you
must eat in order to live, not live in order to eat.
344 FINAL SENTENCES.
This form may be translated by. (in order) to ; sometimes by that
may, that might, that, with the Subjunctive and the like.
II. Final Sentences in which the Design lies in the lead-
ing verb (verba studii et voluntatis, verbs of Will and Desire);
Complementary Final Sentences.
Volo uti mill! respondeas, C., Vat., 7, 17; I wish you to answer me.
This form is often rendered by to, never by in order to, sometimes
by that and the Subjunctive, or some equivalent.
Of the same nature, but partly Final and partly Consecu-
tive in their sequence, are :
Verbs of Hindering.
Peculiar in their sequence are :
III. Verbs of Fearing.
REMARKS. — i. The use of the Subjv. with Temporal Particles often
adds a final sense, inasmuch as the Subjv. regularly looks forward to
the future. So dum, donee, quoad (572), antequam, priuaquam (577).
2. The general sense of a Final Sentence may also be expressed:
(1) By the Relative qul with the Subjunctive. (630.)
(2) By the Genitive of Gerund or Gerundive, with (seldom without)
causa or gratia. (428, R. 2.)
(3) By ad with Gerund and Gerundive. (432.)
(4) By the Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive. (429, 2.)
(5) By the Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive after verbs of
Giving, We. (430.)
(6) By the Accusative Supine after verbs of Motion. (435.)
(7) By the Future Participle Active (post-Ciceronian). (438, N.)
(8) By the Infinitive (poetic and rare). (421, N. 1, a.)
I. Pure Final Sentences.
545. Pure Final Sentences are introduced by :
1. TJt (uti) (how) that, and other relative pronouns and
adverbs. (630.)
Ut and nfi are often preceded by a demonstrative expression, such
as: idcirco, therefore; e5, to that end ; propterea, on that account; e5
consilio, with that design ; ea causa, re, for that reason.
2. Quo = nt eo, that thereby; with comparatives, that
the . . . — ;
FINAL SENTENCES. 345
3. N6, that not, lest, continued by neve, neu. (444.)
Oportet 6sse, ut vivas, n5n vlvere ut edas, [C.], ad Her., iv. 28, 39 (544,
I.). Inventa sunt specula, ut homS ipse se" n5sset, SEN., N.Q., 1. 17, 4;
mirrors were invented, to make man acquainted with himself. Ut
ame"ris, amabilis esto, Ov., A. A., n. 107; that you may be loved (to make
yourself loved, in order to be loved), be lovable. LSgem brevem esse
oportet, quo facilius ab imperitis teneatur, SEN., E. M., 94, 38 (535). [Senex]
serit arborSs, quae alter! saeclo prosint, CAECILIUS (C., Tusc.,i. 14, 31);
the old man sets out trees, to do good to the next generation. Semper habS
Pyladen aliquem qui curet Orestem, Ov. , Rem. Am. , 589 ; always have some
Pylades, to tend Orestes. [Ath5ni6ns6s] creant decem praetSrSs qui exer-
citui praeessent, NEP., i. 4, 4 ; the Athenians make ten generals to com-
mand their army. [Magnesiam Themistocli Artaxerxgs] urbem dSnarat,
quae el panem praebgret, NEP., u. 10, 3; Artaxerxes had given Themis-
tocles the city of Magnesia, to furnish him with bread. Gallinae pennis
fovent pullos, nS frigore laeclantur, Cf. C., N.D.,u. 52, 129; hens keep
(their) chickens warm with (their) wings, that they may not be (to keep
them from being) hurt by the cold. Dionysius, n6 collum tOnsorl commit-
teret, tondere fllias suas docuit, d., Tusc., v. 20, 58 (423, N. 6).
REMARKS. — i. Ut nS is found for nS with apparently no difference in
signification, occasionally at all periods, but not in CAESAR, SALLUST,
LIVY. Quo without comparative is rare and cited only from PLAUTUS,
TERENCE, SALLUST, OVID, and late Latin ; qu5nS (= ut n6) is not found
till the time of DICTYS ; apparent examples in classical Latin are to be
otherwise explained. Quominus and quin occur in special uses.
2. Ut n5n is used when a particular word is negatived :
Confer te ad Mallium, ut non eiectus ad alienos sed invltatus ad tuos
Isse videaris, C., Cat., i. 9, 23 ; betake yourself to Mallius, that you may
seem to have gone not as an outcast to strangers but as an invited guest
to your own (friends).
3. Ut and n6 are used parenthetically at all periods, depending on
a suppressed word of Saying or the like.
Utque magis stupeas liidos Paridemque reliquit, Juv., vi. 87 ; and to
stun you more (I tell you that) she left Paris and the games.
The verb of Saying may be inserted : atque ut omnSs intellegant dlco,
C., Imp., 8, 20 ; and that all may understand, I say.
II. Complementary Final Sentences.
A. Verbs of Will and Desire.
546. Complementary Final Sentences follow verbs of
Willing and Wishing, of Warning and Beseeching, of Urg-
346 FINAL SENTENCES.
ing and Demanding, of Resolving and Endeavouring (verba
studil et voluutatis).
1. Positive : ut.
Volo uti mihl respondeas, C., Vat.. 7. 17 (544, II.). (Pb.a6tb.6n) optavit
ut in currum patris tollergtur, C., Off.,m. 25, 94; Phaethon desired to
be lifted up into his father's chariot. Admoneo ut cottidiS meditere
resistendum esse iracundiae, C., Q.F., 1. 1. 13, 38 ; I admonish you to reflect
daily that resistance must be made to hot-headedness. TJbii (Caesarem)
Brant, ut sib! parcat, CAES., B. dr., vi. 9, 7 ; the Ubii beg Ccesar to spare
them. Sed precor ut possim tutius esse miser, Ov., Tr., \. 2, 78 (423, 2).
Exigis ut Priamus natorum funere ludat, Ov., Tr., v. 12, 7; you exact that
Priam sport at (his) sons' funeral. AthSniensSs cum statuerent ut nav8s
conscenderent, Cyrsilum quendam suadentem ut in urbe manerent lapidibus
obmerunt, C., Off.,iu. n,48; the Athenians, resolving to go on board
their ships, overwhelmed with stones (— stoned) one Cyrsilus, who tried
to persuade them to remain in the city.
So also any verb or phrase used as a verb of Willing or
Demanding.
Pytbia respondit ut moenibus llgneis se munirent, NEP., II. 2, 6 : the
Pythia answered that they must defend themselves with walls of wood.
2. Negative : ne, ntne ; continued by neve (neu), and not.
Caesar suls imperavit ne quod omnlno telum in hostes reicerent, CAES.,
B. O., i. 46, 2 ; Caesar gave orders to his (men) not to throw back any mis-
sile at all at the enemy. Themistocles [collegis suls] praedlxit ut n6 prius
LacedaemoniOrum Iggatos dlmitterent quam ipse esset remissus, NEP., n. 7,
3 ; Themistocles told his colleagues beforehand not to dismiss the Lace-
daemonian envoys before he were sent back. Pompgius suls praedixerat
ut Caesaris impetum exciperent nSve s5 Ioc5 movSrent, CAES., B.C., in. 92,
1 ; Pompey had told his men beforehand to receive Caesar's charge and
not to move from their position.
REMARKS. — i. When verbs of Willing and Wishing are used as
verbs of Saying and Thinking, Knowing and Showing, the Inf. must
be used. The English translation is that, and the Indie. : void, / mil
have it (maintain), moneo, / remark, persuaded, / convince, dgcerno, /
decide, c5g5, I conclude:
[Moneo] artem sine adsiduitate dicendl non multum iuvare, Cf. [C.], ad
Her., i. i, 1 ; I remark that art without constant practice in speaking is
of little avail. Viz cuiquam persuadebatur Graecia omni cessuros (Bomanos),
L., xxxui. 32, 3 ; scarce any one could be persuaded that the Romans
would retire from all Greece. N5n sunt istl audiendl qui virtutem duram
et quasi feiream esse quandam volant, C., Lael., 13, 48 (313, E. 2). Est
FINAL SENTENCES. 347
mos hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rSbus excellere, C., Brut., 21, 84 ;
it is the ivay of the world not to allow that the same man excels in more
things (than one).
2. When the idea of Wishing is emphatic, the simple Subjv., with-
out ut, is employed, and the restriction of sequence to Pr. and Impf.
is removed :
Velim existimes neminem cuiquam cariorem umquam fuisse quam te mihi,
C., Fam., i. 9, 24 ; / wish you to think that no one was ever dearer to
any one than you to me. Malo te sapiens hostis metuat quam stultl civ 6s
laudent, L., xxn. 39, 20 ; 1 had rather a wise enemy should fear you
than foolish citizens should praise you. Excusatum habeas me rogo,
c6no domi, MART., n. 79, 2 (238). Hue ades, insanl feriant sine litora
fluctus, V., EC., 9, 43 ; come hither (and) let the mad waves lash the
shores. Tarn fglix essSs quam formosissima vellem, Ov., Am., i. 8, 27 (302).
Vellem me" ad cenam invltassgs, C., Fam., xn. 4, 1 (261, E.). Occidit occi-
deritque sinas cum nomine Tr<}ia, V., A., xn. 828 ; 'tis fallen, and let
Troy he fallen, name and all.
So iubeo in poetry and later prose. Compare also potius quam, 577, N. 6.
3. Ut n6 is not used after verbs of negative signification, as impedio,
I hinder, recuso, I refuse (548). Otherwise there seems to be no differ-
ence in meaning between it and n§, except that sometimes the nS seems
to apply more to a single word in the sentence.
4. On nSdum, see 482, 5, K. 2.
NOTES.— 1. Such verbs and phrases are : Willing %t\& Wishing: volo, nolo, ma!5,
opto, studeS. Warning and Beseeching: hortor, adhortor, moneo, admoneo,
auctor sum, consilium do, oro, rogo, peto, precor, posco, postulo, flagito, ob-
Becro. Urging and Demanding: suadeo, persuadeo, c6nseo, impero, mando,
praecipio, gdico, dico, scribo. Resolving and Endeavouring: statuo, constituS,
d6cern5, nitor, contends, laboro, pugn5, id ago, operam d5, euro, videS, pro-
video, prospicio, legem fero, lex est, etc.
2. Substantives of kindred meaning, in combination with the copula or other verbs,
take similar constructions. Such are voluntas, cupiditas, spSs, ardor, auctoritas,
cOnsilium (especially in the combination e5, h5c consilio), signum, praeceptum,
exemplum, propositum, officium, negotium, munus, verba, and litterae (with
dare, mittere, etc.), sententia, animus (especially eo animo), condicio (especially
ea cQndicione), foedus, ius, lex i ea lege), cura, opera, causa, ratio.
3. Instead of ut with the Subjv., the Inf. is frequently used with this class of verbs.
So, generally, with iubeS, I_prder, 532. With verbs of Asking, however, the Inf. is
not common until VEKGLL. Orare has Inf. once in PLADTUS, then in VEBGIL and later
poets ; in prose first in TACITUS. Rogare has ut regularly, Inf. only once (CAT., xxxv.
10). Quaeso, implQro, obsecro, obtSstor, never have Inf., flagitare only once
(H., S., n. 4, 61) until SUETONIUS ; postulare very often, especially in early Latin in
the sense expect ; poscere not till the Augustan poets. Authors vary. The use of the
Inf. its wider in poetry and silver prose.
B. Verbs of Hindering.
547. The dependencies of verbs of Hindering may be regarded as
partly Final, partly Consecutive. N6 and qu5minus are originally final,
348 FINAL SENTENCES.
but the final sense is often effaced, especially in qu5minus. Quin is a
consecutive particle. The sequence of verbs of Hindering is that of
the Final Sentence.
The negative often disappears in the English translation.
548. Verbs and phrases signifying to Prevent, to Forbid,
to Eefuse, and to Beware, may take ne with the Subjunc-
tive, if they are not negatived.
Iinpedior n5 plura dlcam, C., Sull., 33, 92 ; I am hindered from say-
ing more (I am hindered that I should say no more). ' ' Who did hinder
you that ye should not obey the truth ? " GAL., v. 7.
Servitiis mea mihi interdlxit ne quid mlrer meum malum, PL., Pers.,
621 ; my slavery has forbidden me to marvel aught at ill of mine. Hi-
stiaeus nSrSs conficeretur obstitit, NEP., i. 3, 5 ; Histiaeus opposed the
thing's being done. (Begulus) sententiam n5 dlceret recusavit, C. , Off. , in.
27, 100; Regulus refused to pronounce an opinion. Maledictls deterrfire
n5 scribat parat, TEE., Ph., 3 (423, 2). Tantum cum fing6s n6 sis mani-
fSsta cav5t5, Ov., A. A., in. 801 (271, 2). Tantum ne noceas dum vis prO-
desse videto, Ov., Tr., i. i, 101; only see (to if) that you do not do harm
while you wish to do good.
NOTES.— 1. The most important of these words are: Presenting: impedlre, im-
pediments esse, prohibere, tenSre, retingre, dSterrSre, intercludere, interpel-
late, deprecarl, obsistere, obstare, intercedere, interponere. Forbidding:
interdlcere. lief using: recusare, repugnare, resistere, s6 tenere, sS repri-
mere, sibi temperare, morari. Beware; cav6re, videre, and a few others,
especially the phrase per aliquem stare (more often with quominus).
2. Many verbs of Preventing and Refusing also take quominus (549), and some also
the Infinitive (423, 2, N. 2).
3. CavSre, to beware, and praecavSre belong to verbs of Hindering only so far as
action is contemplated. Cavere, followed by nt, means to be sure to ; by nS or ut
nS, to see to it that not ; by nS, to lake precautions against. When nS is omitted,
cave, cav6t5, with the Subjv., form circumlocutions for the negative Imperative
(271, 2). So with vid5 Ut, nS. CavSre also has the Inf. occasionally as a verb of
negative Will (423, 2, N. 2), beginning with PLAUTUS. In prose it is cited only from
CATO (once), CICERO (Att., in. 17, 3), SALLUST (Tug., 64, 2), and PLINY MAI.
4. VidS n6 (n6 n5n), see to it left, is often used as a polite formula for dubitS an
(457, 2), 7 am inclined to think. CrSdere omnia vide ne non sit necesse, C., Div.,
n. 13, 31.
549. Verbs of Preventing and Eef using may take quominus
(= ut eo minus), that thereby the less, with the Subjunctive.
Aetas non impedit quominus agrl colendl studia teneamus. C., Cat.M.,
17, 60 ; age does not hinder our retaining interest in agriculture. NSn
deterret sapientem mors quominus rel publicae consulat, C., Tusc., I. 38,
91 ; death does not deter the sage from consulting the interest of the
State. Quid obstat quSminus (Deus) sit beatus ? C., N.D., i. 34, 95; what
FINAL SENTENCES. 349
is in the way of God's being happy ? Caesar c5gn5vit per Afranium
stare quominus proelio dlmicarStur, CAES.,J5. C., i. 41, 3 ; Caesar found
that it was Afranius's fault that there was no decisive fight (stat, there
is a stand-still).
NOTES.— 1. With impedlre and prohibgre CAESAR never uses qu5minus ; CICERO
rarely. But with other words implying Hindrance CICERO uses quominus not unfre-
quently. With probibSre the regular construction is the Inf., but this is rare with
impedlre, quSminus being the rule. With recusare, the Inf. is rare (CAES., E.G.,
in. 22, 3) but classical, becoming more frequent from LIVY on. The passive of dSter-
rfire is also construed with the Inf. occasionally.
2. PLAUTUS does not use quominus, TERENCE first, but seldom. It is especially
common from the time of CICERO. In TERENCE the elements are sometimes separated
(qu5— minus), thus emphasising the relative character. But it is not so used in the
classical Latin, and in the Silver Age the force of its origin ceases to be felt, so that it is
construed like quln. The fact that it is not found in PLAUTUS nor in VITRUVIUS has
led to the suggestion that it is a book- word.
3. The difference in usage between quSminus and quln seems to be that while
quln is always used with negatives, quominus occurs sometimes with positives, so that
according to the connection it is either Final or Consecutive.
4. Qu5 sStius for quSminua is archaic, but occurs twice in COHNIFICIUS and
twice in CICERO (Inv., n. 45, 132 ; 57, 170).
III. Verbs of Fearing.
550. i. Verbs of Fearing, and expressions that involve
Fear, take the Present and Perfect, Imperfect and Pluperfect
Subjunctive.
The Present Subjunctive represents the Present and Future
Indicative. The Perfect Subjunctive regularly represents
the Perfect Indicative.
Present and Perfect Subjunctive become Imperfect and
Pluperfect after a Past Tense.
These constructions are survivals of the original parataxis, when nS and ut were
particles of wish. Thus, timed1 : nS veniat, lam afraid; may fie not come (i.e., I am
afraid that he will), becomes, when the two clauses are combined, timed nS veniat,
I am afraid lest (that) he may (will) come. Similarly with ut, which in this usage
was originally how. Hence,
2. With verbs of Fearing, ne, lest, shows that the nega-
tive is wished and the positive feared ; ut (ne n5n) shows
that the positive is wished and the negative feared : ne non
is used regularly after the negative, or an interrogative with
negative force.
Vereor ng hostis veniat, I fear lest the enemy come, that he is coming,
that he will come. (I wish he may not come.)
Vereor nehostis vSnerit, I fear lest the enemy have come, that (it will
turn out that) he has come.
35O FINAL SENTENCES.
Vereor ut amlcus veniat, I fear (hoio my friend can come) lest my friend
come not, that he is not coming, will not
come. (I wish he may come.)
Vereor ut amicus venerit, / fear lest my friend have not come, that he
has not come.
NSn vereor n6 amicus non veniat, I do not fear that my friend is not
coming, will not come.
Non vereor ne amicus non venerit, I do not fear that my friend has not
come.
Id paves, ne ducas tu illam, tu autem ut ducas. TER. , And., 349 ; that's
what you dread, YOU lest you marry her (ne ducam !) ; YOU, on the other
hand, lest you don't (utinam ducam!).
Vereor n6 dum minuere velim laborem augeam, C. , Leg., i. 4, 12 ; I fear
lest, while I wish to lessen the toil, J increase it (that I am increasing
it). Veremur ne paruni hie liber mellis et absinthii multum habere vide-
atur, QUIXT., in. i, 5; I am afraid that this hook will seem to have too
little honey and (too) much wormwood. Timeo n5 tib! nibil praeter la-
crimas queam reddere, C., Plane., 42, 101; lam afraid that lean give
you nothing in return save tears. Aurum Inspicere volt ne subruptum
siet, PL., Aul., 39 ; he wishes to inspect the gold (for fear) lest it he
filched.
Time5 ut sustineas (Iab5res), C., Fam., xiv. 2, 3; I fear that you mil
not hold out under your toils. Vereor ne dum defendam meSs, non parcam
tuls, C., Att., i. 17, 3; I fear lest in defending my own I may not spare
thine. N5n vereor ne tua virtus opinion! hominum non respondeat, Cf. C.,
Fam., n. 5, 2; I do not fear that your virtue will not answer to (come
up to) public expectation. Metuo ne id c5nsilii ceperlmus quod non facile
explicare posslmus, C., Fam., siv. 12 ; I fear that ice have formed apian
that we cannot readily explain. Unum illud extimescebam ne quid turpius
facerem, vel dicam, iam effgcissem, C. , Att., ix. 7, 1 ; the only thing I feared
was, lest I should act disgracefully, or, I should (rather) say, (lest) 1
had already acted disgracefully.
NOTES.— 1. Ut seems to be used only after metu5, paveo, timed, and vereor.
Most common is vereor ; metuo is common in early Latin, but is cited but rarely later
(HORACE, CICERO) ; paveo has to be supplied once with ut in TER., And., 349. Timeo
Ut is found first in CICERO, and is very rare.
"• N6 n5n is very rare in early Latin, but becomes more frequent from CICERO on.
Ut ne is never found for ne.
3. Two strange cases are cited where, instead of n6, ut seems to be used, viz., HOR.,
S.,i. 3, 120, nam ut ferula caedSs meritum maiora sublre verbera, non vereor,
and L., xxvni. 22, 12, nihil minus, quam ut egredi obsessl moenibus auderent,
timer! poterat. In the first case the ut clause precedes, and the non vereor is used
by anacoluthon ; in j;he second the ut clause is a circumlocution for an omitted illud,
parallel to nihil. This is also helped by the antecedence of the ut clause.
4. When a verb of Fear is a verb of Uncertainty an indirect question may follow :
vereor qu6 mods acceptor! sltis, [C.], ad Her., iv. 37, 49.
CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES. 351
5. (a) With the Inf. verbs of Fear are verbs of (negative) Will : vereor = prae
timore nolo.
VSs Allobrogum tgstimonils non crSdere timetis 1 C., Font., 12, 26 ; are ye
afraid to disbelieve the testimony of the Allobroges f Vereor laud are praesentem,
C., N.D., i. 21, 58 (423, 2). Nil metuunt iurare, CAT., LXIV. 146 ; they have no fear to
take an oath.
These constructions are found at all periods and with a wide range of words. CIC-
ERO, however, is restrained in his usage, and the most examples are found in the poets
and later prose writers.
(b) With the Ace. and Inf. verbs of Fear are verbs of Thinking or of Perception :
vereor = cum timSre puto or video.
VerSbar non omnSs causam vincere posse suam [Ov., Her., 16, 75]. T5lum-
que instare tremgscit, V., A., XH. 916.
This construction is rare, but occurs at all periods ; more often, however, it involves
the substantives timor and metus, especially in LIVT, who shows seven cases alto-
gether.
CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES.
Sentences of Tendency and Result.
551. i. Consecutive Sentences are those sentences which
show the Consequence or Tendency of Actions. In Latin,
Kesult is a mere inference from Tendency, though often an
irresistible inference. In other words, the Latin language
uses so as throughout, and not so that, although so that is
often a convenient translation. The result is only implied,
not stated.
2. Consecutive Sentences are divided into two classes :
I. Consecutive Sentences in which the Tendency is ex-
pressed by the Particle : Pure Consecutive Sentences.
II. Consecutive Sentences in which the Tendency lies in
the leading Verb : (a) after verbs of Effecting ; (I) after
negatived verbs of Preventing, Doubt, and Uncertainty ;
(c) after words and phrases requiring expansion.
I. Pure Consecutive Sentences.
552. Pure Consecutive Sentences are introduced by
1. Tit (uti), that, so that, and other relative pronouns and
adverbs (631).
2. Ut — non, that, so that, as — not, continued by neque, nee
(543, 4).
3. Quin = ut non, after a negative sentence (554).
Correlative demonstratives occur very often : ita (sic), tarn,
352 CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES.
tantopere, tanto, tantum, adeo, eo, hue ; tails, tantus, tot, b,
eius modi, and others of similar meaning.
In virtute molt! sunt adscensus, at is maxime gloria excellat, qui vir-
tiite prurimum praestet, C., Plane., 25, 60 ; in virtue there are many
degrees, so that he excels most in glory who is most advanced in virtue.
Neque me vixisse paenitet quoniam ita vixi at non frustra me natum exls-
tumem, C., Cat.M., 23, 84 (540). Tanta vis probitatis est, ut earn in
hoste etiam diligamus, C., Lad., 9, 2Q ; so great is the virtue of upright-
ness, that we love it even in an enemy. Non is es ut tS pudor umquam a
turpitudine revocarit, C., Cat., i. 9, 22 ; you are not the man for shame
ever to have recalled you (= ever to have been recalled by shame) from
baseness. N6m6 ade5 ferus est at non mitescere possit, H., Ep., i. i, 39 ;
no one is so savage that he cannot (be made to) soften. Nil tarn difficile
est quin quaerendo investlgari possiet, TER., Heaut., 675 ; naught is so
hard but it can (= that it cannot) be tracked out by search. Nomqaam
tarn male est Siculis qoin aliquid facets et commode dlcant, C., Verr., iv.
43, 95 ; the Sicilians are never so badly off as not to (have) something
or other clever and pat (to) say.
REMARKS. — i. Notice especially the impersonal tantom abest, afuit
(rarely aberat) — at — at. The phrase originates with an abstract Abl.
dependent on a personal absum, which abstract Abl. is afterward ex-
panded into a consecutive clause with at.
[Aggsilaus] tantum afuit ab Insolentia gloriae at commiseratus sit for-
tunam Graeciae, NEP., xvii. 5, 2 ; Agesilaus was so far from the inso-
lence of glory that he pitied the (mis)fortune of Greece. Tantum abest
ab eo at malum mors sit at verear ne homini sit nihil bonum aliud, C.,
Tusc., i. 31, 76 ; so far is it from death (= so far is death from) being
an evil that 1 fear man has no other blessing. Tantum afuit, ut illorum
praesidio nostram flrmaremus classem, ut etiam a Bhodils urbe prohiberen-
tur nostri milites, LENTULUS [C., Fam., xu. 15, 2] ; so far were we from
strengthening our fleet by reinforcements from them that our soldiers
were actually kept away from the city by the Rhodians. Tantum abest
at nostra miremur at usque eo difficiles simas at nobis non satisfaciat ipse
Demosthenes, C. , Or., 29, 104 ; so far are we from admiring our own (com-
positions) that ice are so hard to please that Demosthenes himself fails to
satisfy us.
The personal construction is extremely rare.
The second at may be omitted, and a declarative sentence follow
asyndetically : Tantum aberat ut binos (Iibr5s) scriberent : vix singulos
confecerunt, C., Alt., xin. 21, 5 ; so far were, they from writing two copies
of each book, they with difficulty finished up one.
2. Dlgnus, worthy, indlgnus, unworthy, aptus, idoneus, fit, take a con-
secutive sentence with qul. Occasionally in early, more often in later
CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES. 353
Latin, dlgnus and indfgnus take ut. In poetry all these words are
found sometimes with the Infinitive.
Qui modeste paret, videtur qul aliquando imperet dignus esse, C., Leg.,
in. 2, 5 ; he who obeys duly seems to be worthy to command some day.
3. While ita (sic) is usually antecedent to a consecutive ut, it
may also be antecedent to a final ut or n5 when the design or wish
intrudes. Ita mS gessl nS tibl pud5rl essem, L., XL. 15, 6 ; I behaved my-
self so as not to be a disgrace to you.
So not unfrequently when a restriction or condition is intended :
Ita probanda est mansuetudo ut adhibeatur rel publicae causa severitas,
C., Off., i. 25, 88 ; mildness is to be approved, so that (provided that)
strictness be used for the sake of the commonwealth. Ita frul volunt
voluptatibus ut nulll propter eas cSnsequantur dolores, C., Fin., i. 14, 48 ;
they wish to enjoy pleasures without having any pain to ensue on ac-
count of them. [Pythagoras et PlatS] mortem ita laudant ut fugere vltam
vetent, C., Scaur., 4, 5; Pythagoras and Plato so praise death, that they
(while they praise death) forbid fleeing from life. Ita tu istaec tua
mlsc6t5 n6 mS admlsceas, TER., Heaut., 783 ; mix up your mixings so you
mix me not withal. Tantum a vallS [PompSl] prlma acigs aberat, uti nS
te"15 adicl posset, CAES., B.C., in. 55.
Ut alone may also be used thus : ESx esse nolim ut esse crudelis velim,
SYR., 577 ; king I would not be, if I must school myself to cruelty.
4. TTt n5n is often = without, and the English verbal in -ing :
(Octavianus) numquam fllios suos populo commendavit ut non adiceret : si
merSbuntur, SUET., Aug., 56; Octavianus (Augustus) never recommended
his sons to the people in such a way as not to add (= without adding) :
if they are worthy. Qul n5 malum liabeat abstinet sS ab iniuria certs
malet existiraarl bonus vir ut non sit quam esse ut non putetur, C., Fin., n.
22, 71 ; he who, to avoid misfortune, abstains from injury, will certainly
prefer being thought a good man without being such, to being (a good
man) without being believed (to be such).
II. Complementary Consecutive Sentences.
A. Verbs of Effecting.
553. Verbs of Effecting belong partly to the Consecutive,
partly to the Final Sentence. The negative is non or ne ; the
sequence, final.
Such verbs are :
i. Verbs of Causation : facere, efficere, perficere, 7 make,
effect, achieve ; assequl, consequl, 7 attain, accomplish, and
many others.
The following are cited as more or less common in CICERO : proncere,
23
354 CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES.
impctrare, valgre, committere, tenSre, adipiscl, praestare, ferre (in phrases
consuetude, natura, fortuna fert), adferre, adiuvare, expugnare, extorquere,
exprimere, and a few others.
Efficiam ut intellegatis, C., Cluent., 3, 7; I will cause you to under-
stand. Sed perfice, ut Crassua haec quae coartavit nobls explicet, C., Or.,
I. 35, 163 ; but bring it about that Crassus (make Crassus) unfold to us
what he has condensed. N5n committam ut causam aliquam tib! reciisandl
dem, C., Or., n. 57, 233; / shall not make the blunder of giving you an
excuse for refusing.
Negatives :
ESrum obscuritas non verborum facit ut nSn intellegatur oratio, C., Fin.,
ii. 5, 15 ; it is the obscurity of the subject, not of the words, that
causes the language not to be understood. Potestis efficere ut male moriar,
ut non moriar non potestis, PLIN., Ep., in. 16, 11; you may make me die
a hard death, keep me from dying you cannot. Efficiam posthac n5
quemquam voce lacessas, V., EC., 3, 51; / will bring it about that you
challenge no one hereafter in song.
Facere ut is often little more than a periphrasis ; especially in the
forms fac ut and fax5, faxit (both peculiar to Comedy).
Fortuna vestra facit ut irae meae temperem, L., xxxvi. 35, 3; your for-
tune causes that I(makes me) restrain my anger (put metes'to my anger).
Invitus (325, R. 6) facio ut recorder ruinas rei publicae, C., Vat., 9, 21 ; (it
is) against my will that I (am doing so as to) recall the ruined condition
of the commonwealth.
2. Verbs of Compelling and Permitting :
Cogere, adigere, impellere, ducere, with its compounds, movSre, com-
movgre, to which must be added exorare, to force by pleading. Permit-
tere, sinere, concgdere, dare, (non) patl, and less often larglri. tribuere,
ferre.
Tenemus memoria Catulum esse coactum ut vitase ipse privaret, 0., Or.,
in. 3, 9 ; we remember that Catulus was forced to take his own life.
Illud natura non patitur, ut aliorum spolils nostras copias augeamus, C.,
Off., in. 5, 22; nature does not allow us to increase our wealth by the
spoils of others. Collggam perpulerat nS contra rem publicam sentlret, S.,
C., 26, 4; he had prevailed upon his colleague, not to take sides against
the commonwealth.
NOTE.— Cogere has usually the Inf. (423, 2, N. 2), so occasionally sinere, patl. On
permittere, see 532, N. 1. CSgere in the sense conclude is a verb of Saying (546, B. i).
Facere and efficere, in the sense came, are very rarely used with the Infinitive. Com-
pare C., Sr., 38, 142, (acti5) talSs 5rat6r6s vidSrl facit, quales ipsl s6 vidSrl
volunt. This becomes more common in very late Lathi.
3. Passive verbs of Causation, and their equivalents,
CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES. 355
namely, many Impersonal Verbs of Happening and Follow-
ing, of Accident and Consequent.
Such verbs are conficl, efficl, fit, accidit, contingit, obtingit, Svenit, it
happens, usu venit, it occurs, sequitur, it follows, and many others. So
also est, it is the case.
Ex qu5 efficitur, n6n ut voluptas n6 (the design of the arguer) sit vo-
luptas, sed ut voluptas non (the result of the argument) sit summum bo-
num, C., Fin., H. 8, 24; from which it results, not that pleasure is not
pleasure, but that pleasure is not the supreme good. Potest fieri ut fallar,
C., Fam., xni. 73, 2 ; (it) may be (that) I am mistaken. Potest fieri ut
is unde tS audlsse dicis Iratus cllxerit, C., Or., n. 70, 285; (it) may be (that)
he from whom you say you heard (it) said it in anger. Persaepe 6venit
ut utilitas cum honestate certet, C., Part. Or., 25, 89; it very often (so)
happens that profit is at variance with honor.
NOTE.— Noteworthy is the early Latin use of (fieri) potis ut n8, as iii fieri potis
est ut nS qua exeat, TER., Ad., 626.
4. Very many impersonal verbs and combinations of neuter
adjectives with est, after the analogy of the impersonals just
mentioned.
Such are : additur, accedit, it is added ; restat, reliquom est, it remains ;
apparet, it is plain. Enumerations, as, proximum, tertium, extremum
est ; inusitatum, rarum est, it rarely happens that ; novom, singulare,
mirum, inauditum, verum, falsum, (non) vSrlsimile, consequens, etc. Also
rarely, interest, necesse est, necessarium est, and the like.
Ad Appi Claud! seaectutem accedebat etiam ut caecus esset, C., Cat.M.,
6, 16 ; to the old age of Appius Claudius was further added his being
blind. El ne integrum quiclem erat ut ad iustitiam remigraret, C., Tusc.,
v. 21, 62 ; for him it was not even an open question to go back to
justice. Rarum (= raro accidit) ut sit idoneus suae rei quisque defensor,
QUINT., iv. i, 46; it is rare for a man to be a good defender of his own
case.
REMARKS. — i. Necesse est, it is necessary, generally, and oportet, it
behooves, always omit ut :
[Leuctrica pugna] immortalis sit necesse est, NEP., xv. 10, 2 ; the battle
of Leuctra must needs be immortal. Sed non effugies ; mecum moriaris
oportet, PROP., n. 8, 25 ; but you shall not escape; you must die with
me.
2. The neuter adjectives with ut are very rare until the post-classi-
cal period and are far more commonly construed with the Infinitive.
3. Very common is the periphrasis fore (futurum) ut, which gives the
common form of the Fut. Infinitive. See 248.
3 $6 CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES.
B. Verbs of Hindering.
554. Quln is used like quominus, with Verbs of Preventing,
Eef using, etc., but only when they are negatived or ques-
tioned.
NOTES.— 1. Quln is compounded of qul— an interrogative-relative Ablative or
Locative— and nS (n8n). Its first use is interrogative: "why not " in an indignant
question ; almost equivalent to an indignant Imperative, with which, through the fad-
ing out of its composition, it is occasionally connected, especially in early and later
Latin, rarely in CICERO (269).
2. An indignant question (How not? Why not!1) objects to opposition, and is there-
fore naturally construed with the negative of a verb of Hindering. Hence quill, as an
interrogative (How not ?), takes the sequence of the Interrogative Sentence. But this
shows itself only after words of doubt ; after verbs of Preventing the sequence coincides
with that of the Final Sentence, and after other negative sentences the sequence coin-
cides with that of the Consecutive Sentence.
3. By ite combination with verbs of Preventing, quln came to be felt as a consecu-
tive particle = ut non, and was then used in other consecutive connections for
at non.
555. Quin is used when Verbs and Phrases of Preventing,
Omitting, Refraining, Refusing, and Delaying, Doubt, and
Uncertainty, are negatived or questioned.
1. Verbs of Preventing and the like (sequence of the
Final Sentence).
Viz nunc obsistitur illis quln lanient mundum, Ov., M., I. 58 ; they
are now hardly to be kept (that they should not rend) from rending
the universe. Antiochus non s5 tenuit quln contra suum doctorem librum
Sderet, C., Ac., n. 4, 12; Antiochus did not refrain from publishing a
book against his teacher. Vix reprimor quln t6 manSre iubeam, PL.,
M.G., 1368; I am scarcely kept back (keep myself back) from bidding
you remain. Neque mS luppiter [prohibebit] quln sic faciam uti con-
stitul, PL., Am., 1051 ; nor will Jupiter prevent me from doing just as
I determined to do.
REMARK. — The list of verbs is given in 548, N. 1.
2. Verbs of Doubt and Uncertainty (sequence of the
Interrogative Sentence).
N8n dubium est quln uxSrem nolit fflius, TER., And., 172 ; there is no
doubt that (my) son does not want a wife. Quia dubitet (= n6m5 dubi-
tet) quln in virtute dlvitiae sint? C., Parad., vi. 2,48 (259). NSn
dubitarl debet quln fuerint ante Homgrum. pogtae, C., Br., 18, 71 ; it is not
to be doubted that there were, poets before Homer. Nunc mib.1 non est
dubium quln venturae non sint (legiones), C., Fam., 11. 17, 5 (515).
CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES. 357
Occasionally verbs of Saying and Thinking are found with the same
construction, because they are near equivalents.
Negari non potest quin rectius sit etiam ad pacatos barbaros exercitum
mitti, Cf. L., XL. 36, 2; it cannot be denied (doubted) that it is better for
an army to be sent to the barbarians even though they be quiet. Non
abest susplcio (Litotes [700] for dubitarl non potest) quin (Orgetorix) ipse
sibi mortem consclverit, CAES., B.Gr., i. 4, 4; there is no lack of ground
to suspect (— there is no doubt that) Orgetorix killed himself.
REMARKS. — i. The principal gain of the interrogative sequence is
that the Periphrastic Fut. may be employed (of which, however, the
first example is cited from CICERO), but according to 515, R. 3, n6n
dubito quin may have the simple Subjv. instead of the Periphrastic :
Non dubitare quin d6 omnibus obsidibus supplicium sumat (Ariovistus),
CAES., B. G., i. 3i,15 ; " Tie did not doubt that Ariovistus would put all
the hostages to death." Compare CAT., cvm. 3.
So when there is an original Subjv. notion :
Non dubito quin ad t5 statim veniam, C.,Att.,vm. IIB, 3; / do not
doubt that I ought to come to you forthwith. (Veniam ? Shall I come ?)
z. Of course dubito and non dubito may have the ordinary interroga-
tive constructions (467). On dubito an, see 457, 2.
3. Non dubito, with the Inf., usually means / do not hesitate to:
Non dubitem dlcere crane's sapientes semper esse beatos, C., Fin.,v. 32,
95 ; / should not hesitate to say that all wise men are always happy.
Et dubitamus adMc virtutem extenders factls ? V., A., vi. 806; and do we
still hesitate to spread our (fame for) valour by our deeds ? Compare
vereor, timeo, I fear, hesitate to (550, 2, N. 5).
So occasionally non dubito quin. See R. i.
(KomanI) arbitrabantur non dubitaturum fortem virum quin cederet ae-
quo animo iSgibus, C., Mil., 23, 63; the Romans thought that a brave
man would not hesitate to yield with equanimity to the laws.
NOTE.— Non dubito with the Inf. for non dubito quin occurs chiefly in NEPOS,
LIVY, and later writers.
Sunt multi qul quae turpia esse dubitare non possunt utilitatis specie
ductl probent, QUINT. ,111. 8,3; there are many who, led on by the appearance of
•profit, appi'ove what they cannot doubt to be base.
556. Quin, equivalent to ut non, may be used after any
negative sentence (sequence of the Consecutive Sentence).
Here it may often be translated " without."
Nil tarn difficile est quin quaerendo invgstlgari possiet, TER., Heaut.,
675 (552). Nullum adhuc intermisi diem quin aliquid ad te Htterarum
darem, C., Att., vn. 15, 1; I have thus far not allowed a day to pass but
I dropped you (without dropping you) something of a letter (a line or
two).
358 CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES.
Note the combination (facere) n5n possum quin, / cannot but, and
similar combinations ; n5n possum n5n with Inf. is also classical.
Facere non possum quin cottldie" ad tS mittam (lltteras), C., Att., xn. 27,
2; I cannot do without (I cannot help) sending a letter to you daily.
Non possum quin exclamem, PL. , Trin. , 705 ; I cannot but (I must) cry
out. (Null8 modo facere possum ut non sim popularis, C.,Agr.,u. 3, 7
(reading doubtful) ; I cannot help being a man of the people.)
Nihil abest quin sim miserrimus, C.,Att.,s.i. 15,8; there is nothing
wanting that I should be (= to make me) perfectly miserable. Fieri
nullo modo poterat quin CleomenI parceretur, C., Verr., v. 40, 104; it could
in nowise happen but that Cleomenes should be spared (= Cleomenes
had to be spared). Paulum afuit quin (Fabius) Varum interficeret, CAES.,
B.C., n. 35, 2; there was little lacking but Fabius (had) killed Varus
(= Fabius came near killing Varus).
Explanatory Ut.
557. A Consecutive Sentence with ut is often used to give
the contents or character of a preceding substantive, adjec-
tive, or pronoun.
Est m5s hominum ut nSlint enndem pluribus rebus excellere, C.,Sr.,
21, 84 (546, R. i). An quoiquamst usus hominl sS ut cruciet ? TER., Heaut.,
8 1 (406, N. 5). Est miser orum ut malevolentes sint atque invideant bonis,
PL., Capt., 583; the wretched have a way of being ill-natured and envy-
ing the well-to-do. Nee memn ad t6 ut mittam gratils, PL., Asin., 190 ;
nor is it my style to let her go to you as a gracious gift. Id est proprium
clvitatis ut sit llbera, C., Off., n. 22, 78 ; it is the peculiar privilege of a
state, to be free. Illud ipsum habet consul ut el reliqul magistrates par eant,
C., Leg., in. 7, 16 ; the consul has this very prerogative, that the other
magistrates be obedient unto him. Totum in eo est, ut tib! imperSs, C.,
Tusc., n. 22, 53; all depends upon this (one thing), your self-command.
REMARK. — These are principally mos, consuStudS, habit, wont ; opus,
usus, need; many substantives of opinion and perception, as oplnio, sen-
tentia, cogitatio, mens, sapientia, scientia, cognitio ; natura, genus, status,
and others, usually with a demonstrative attached ; adjectives indi-
cating possession : meum, tuom, suom (all mainly ante-class.), proprium,
commune, praecipuum (LiVY), and predicate Genitives with esse : id, h5c,
illud, etc. These should be distinguished from final usages.
NOTES. — 1. Tendency and Character lend themselves readily to circumlocution, and
ut with Subjv. becomes a manner of equivalent to the Inf., which, however, is by far
the more common construction.
2. To the same principle is to be referred the use of ut after maior (magis) quarn,
n5n aliter quam (without), first in LTVY ; after nisi (591, f>, B. 3). See 298.
Praeceptum maius erat quam ut ab nomine videretur, C., Fin., \. 16, 44 (503).
TEMPOEAL SENTENCES. 359
Exclamatory Questions.
558. Ut with the Subjunctive is used in Exclamatory
Questions, usually with the insertion of -ne.
Egone ut t6 interpellem 1 C., Tusc., n. 18, 42 ; / interrupt you ? Ta
ut umquam t§ corrigas ? C., Cat., i. 9, 22; you — ever reform yourself?
Di magnl, ut qui clvem Romanum occldisset, impunitatem acciperet, SEN.,
Ben., v. 16, 3 ; Great Gods ! that one who had slain a Roman citizen,
should escape unpunished !
NOTE. — The expression is closely parallel with the Ace. and Infinitive. The one
objects to the idea ; the other, to any state of things that could produce the result.
In neither case is there any definite or conscious ellipsis. Compare TEB., Hec., 589,
with 613.
TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
559. The action of the Temporal or Dependent clause may
stand to the action of the Principal clause in one of three
relations :
1. It may be antecedent.
CONJUNCTIONS : Fostquam (Postea quam, not ante-class.), after that,
after; ut, as ; ubi, when (literally, where); simulac, as soon as ; ut pri-
mum, cum prlmum, the first moment that.
II. It may be contemporaneous.
CONJUNCTIONS : Bum, donee, while, until ; quoad, up to (the time) that ;
quamdiu, as long as ; cum, when.
III. It may be subsequent.
CONJUNCTIONS : Antequam, priusquam, before that, before.
A special chapter is required by
IV. Cum (quom), when.
MOODS IN TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
560. i. The mood of Temporal clauses is regularly the
Indicative.
2. The Subjunctive is used only :
(1) In Oratio Obllqua (508), Total or Partial. So also in
the Ideal Second Person.
(2) When the idea of Design or Condition is introduced.
360 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
I. ANTECEDENT ACTION.
561. In historical narrative, Temporal Clauses with post-
quam (posteaquam), ubi, ut, simulac, ut primum, and cum
primmn commonly take the Historical Perfect or the Histor-
ical Present Indicative.
The English translation is not unfrequently the Pluperfect.
Postquam Caesar pervgnit, obsidSs poposcit, CAES., E.G., I. 27, 3 ; after
Caesar arrived, he demanded • hostages. Quae ubi nuntiantur Romam.
senatus extemplS dictatorem did iussit, L., iv. 56, 8 ; when these tidings
were carried to Rome, the senate forthwith ordered a dictator to be ap-
pointed. PompSius ut equitatum suum pulsum vldit, acie excessit, CAES.,
B.C., in. 94, 5 ; as Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the line of
battle. (Pelopidas) non dubitavit, simul ac conspexit hostem, confllgere
(555, 2, R. 3), NEP., xvi. 5, 3 ; as soon as he (had) caught sight of the
enemy, Pelopidas did not hesitate to engage (him).
Subjunctive in Oratio Obliqua.
Ariovistum, ut semel Galloruia copias vicerit (5. B. vlcit), superbe im-
perare, CAES., B.G., i. 31, 12 ; " that Ariovistus, as soon as he had once
beaten the forces of the Gauls, exercised his rule arrogantly"
562. The Imperfect is used to express an action continued
into the time of the principal clause (overlapping).
The translation often indicates the spectator (233, N. 1).
Tu postquam qui tibl erant amid non poterant vincere, ut amid tibl
essent qui vincSbant effScisti, C., Quinct., 22, 70 ; after (you saw) that
those who were friendly to you could not be victorious you managed
that those should be friendly to you -who were going to be victorious.
Ubi nginS obvius ibat, ad castra hostium tendunt, L., ix. 45, 14 ; ivhen
(they saw that) no one was coming to meet them, they proceeded to the,
camp of the enemy.
Subjunctive in Oratio Obliqua.
Scrlpsistl (euin) posteaquam non audSret (6. E. non audebat) reprehendere,
laudare coepisse, C., Att., i. 13, 4 ; you wrote that, after he could not get
up the courage to blame, he began to praise.
563. i. The Pluperfect is used to express an action com-
pleted before the time of the principal clause ; often of the
Resulting Condition.
Alblnus postquam dgcrSverat n5n ggredi pr5vincia, mllites statlvls castrls
habebat, S., lug., 44, 4 ; after Albinus had fully determined not to depart
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 361
from the .province, lie kept Ms soldiers in cantonments. Posteaquam
multitudinem collSgerat emblematum, Instituit officinam, C., Verr., iv. 24,
54 ; after he had got together a great number of figures, he set up shop.
2. The Pluperfect is used with postquam when a definite
interval is mentioned. Rarely also the Historical Perfect
(Aorist).
Post and quam are often separated. With an Ablative of Measure,
post may be omitted (403, N. 4, d).
( Aristlcles) decessit fere post annum quartum quam Themistocles Athenis
erat expulsus, NEP., in. 3, 3 ; Aristides died about four years after
Themistocles had been (was) banished from Athens. Post diem tertium
gesta rSs est quam dlxerat, C., Mil., 16, 44; the matter was accomplished
three days after he had said it would be. [Hamilcar J nono ann5 postquam
in Hispaniam vSnerat occlsus est, NEP., xxn. 4, 2 ; Hamilcar was killed
nine years after he came to Spain. (Aristldgs) sexto fere anno quam erat
expulsus in patriam restitutus est, NEP., in. i, 5 ; Aristides was restored
to his country about six years after he was exiled. Triduo fer6 postquam
Hannibal a ripa BhodanI movit, ad castra hostium venerat, L., xxi. 32, 1 ;
(within) about three days after Hannibal moved from the banks of the
Rhone he had come to the camp of the enemy.
Subjunctive in Oratio Obliqua.
Scriptum a Posldonio est trlginta annls vixisse Panaetium posteaquam
libros [d5 officils] edidisset, C., Off., in. 2, 8; it is recorded by Posidonius
that Panaetius lived thirty years after he put forth his books on Duties.
The attraction is sometimes neglected.
NOTES.— 1. The most common of these conjunctions is postquam, but the others
also occur at all periods. Simul (atque) is rare in early Latin. In the following notes
the usage in Iterative action is excluded.
2. The Impf. with postquam is cited but once from early Latin (Pi,., Most., 640), it
becomes more common in CICERO, but is distinctive of LIVY, who shows nearly one
hundred examples. The Impf. with ubi is cited once in early Latin (TEB., Min., 405),
where, however, it is Iterative, not at all from CICERO, once from CAESAR, after which
it is found more frequently, but never becomes common. THb Impf. with ut is found
first in CICERO, never in CAESAR, SALLUST, VERGIL, but not uncommonly in LIVY ;
only once in TACITUS (ff., in. 31), where it is Iterative. The Impf. with simul (atque)
is not cited from CICERO and CAESAR, but appears once in SALLUST, where it is
Iterative ; it is very rare.
3. The Plupf. with postquam is not cited from PLAUTUS or HORACE, and but once
from TERENCE (And. 177) ; CICERO uses it but rarely, CAESAR but once (B. C., m. 58,
5) ; LIVY uses it often, and TACITUS is fond of it. The Plupf. with ubi is found once
in PLAUTUS, twice each in CICERO and CAESAR, and then more frequently. The Plupf.
with ut (prlmum) is found first in CICERO, perhaps but once in CAESAR (B. C., m. 63, 6),
more often later. The Plupf. with simul (atque) is cited once from CICERO, not at all
from CAESAR, and rarely later.
4. Some dozen cases are cited, principally from CICERO, of the Subjv. with post-
362 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
qnam not in O.O. Most of these are disputed. If the Snbjv. is to remain in these
passages it is to be explained as due either to Partial Obliquity or to the intrusion of the
cum Subjv. into other temporal constructions. The Subjv. appears in late Latin.
5. The Subjv. with ubi occurs occasionally in early Latin, but only once in CICERO,
not unfrequently in LIVY and TACITUS. This is usually explained as either the Iterative
or Potential Subjunctive. The Subjv. with ut is post-classical, and the Subjv. with
simul does not occur.
564. Postquam and the like, with the Present and Perfect
Indicative, assume a causative signification (compare quo-
niam, now that = since).
[Curia] minor mihl videtur posteaquam est maior, C., Fin., v. i,2 • the
senate-house seems to me smaller now that it is (really) greater. Tremo
horreoque postquam aspexl hanc, TER., Eun., 84 ; / quiver and shiver
since I have seen her.
NOTES.— 1. The use of temporal conjunctions, especially postquam in the Present
Sphere, is much more common in early Latin than later. Ubi and ut occur at all peri-
ods, but rarely ; ubi has almost the same force as si ; ut means ex quo, since. Simul
is rare, and found first in LUCRETIUS.
2. Cum, also, has sometimes the causal signification.
Gratulor tibi cum tantum vales, C., Fam., ix. 14, 3 ; I wish you joy now that
you have so much influence.
565. TTbi and simul are occasionally found with the Future
and Future Perfect ; not so postquam and ut.
Ubi me aspiciet ad carnuncem rapiet continue, PL., B., 689 ; as soon
as he shall catch (catches') sight of me he will hurry me at once to the
hangman. Id tibi quidem hercle flet, Demaenetum simulac conspexero,
PL., Asin., 477; that indeed shall certainly be your fate, as soon as I
shall have espied Demaenetus.
NOTE.— When thus used ubi and simul approach almost the meaning of cum (580).
So also quandO ; seu 580, N. 3. These uses should be distinguished from those of Itera-
tive Action.
Iterative Action.
566. EULE I. — When two actions are repeated contempo-
raneously, both are put in tenses of continuance.
Humiles labor aut ubi potentes dissident, PHAED., i. 30, 1 ; the lowly
suffer when the powerful disagree. Populus me sibilat ; at mihi plaudo
ipse domi simul ac nummos contemplor in area, H.? S., i. I, 66 ; the people
hiss me ; lut I clap myself at home as soon as I gloat o'er my cash in
the strong box. Ubi frumento opus erat, cohortgs praesidium agitabant,
S., lug., 55, 4 ; when there was need of corn, the cohorts would serve as
an escort.
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 363
The Subjunctive with the Ideal Second Person.
Bonus sSgnior fit ubi neglegas, S., lug., 31, 28 ; a good man becomes
more spiritless when you neglect Mm.
567. KULE II. — When one action is repeated before an-
other, the antecedent action is put in the Perfect, Pluper-
fect, or Future Perfect ; the subsequent action in the Pres-
ent, Imperfect, or Future, according to the relation.
%^T As this use runs through all sentences involving antecedent
action, all the classes are represented in the following examples.
Observe the greater exactness of the Latin expression. Compare
244, R. 2.
Quotiens cecidit, surgit, As often as Tie falls, he rises.
QuotiSns ceciderat, surgebat, As often as he fell, he rose.
QuotiSns ceciderit, surget, As often as he falls, he will rise.
Simul Inflavit tibicen a perito carmen agnoscitur, C., Ac., n. 27, 86; as
soon as thefluter blows, the song is recognised by the connoisseur. [Alci-
biades] simul ac serenuserat, luxuriosus reperiebatur, NEP., vn. i, 4; as
soon as Alcibiades relaxed, he was found a debauchee. Dociliora sunt in-
genia priusquam obduruerunt, QUINT., i. 12, 9 ; minds are more teachable
before they (have) become hardened. [Ager] cum multos annos quiSvit,
uberiores efferre fruggs solet, C., Br., 4, 16 ; when a field has rested
(rests) many years, it usually produces a more abundant crop. Cum
palam eius anuli ad palmam converterat (Gyges) a nullo videbatur, C., Off.,
in. 9, 38 ; whenever) Gyges turned the bezel of the ring toward the palm
(of Ms hand), he was to be seen by no one. Si pSs condoluit, si dSns, ferre
non possumus, C., Tusc., n, 22, 62; if a foot, if a tooth ache(s), we cannot
endure it. Stomachabatur senex, si quid asperius dixeram, C., N.D., i. 33,
93 ; the old man used to be fretted, if I said anything (that was) rather
harsh. Qu5s Iab5rant6s cSnspexerat, his subsidia submittebat, CAES. ,B.G.,
iv. 26, 4; to those whom he saw (had espied) hard pressed he would send
reinforcements. Haerebant in memoria quaecumque audierat et viderat
(ThemistoclSs), C., Ac., n. i, 2 ; whatever Themistocles had heard and
seen (= heard and saw) remained fixed in Ms memory. Qui timere dSsi-
erint, Sdisse incipient, TAG., Agr., 32; those who cease to fear will begin
to hate.
The Subjunctive with the Ideal Second Person.
Ubi consuluerls, mature facto opus est, S., C., I, 6 ; when you have
deliberated, you want speedy action.
The Subjunctive in Oratio Obliqua.
[Cats] mirari se aiebat quod non rideret haruspex baruspicem cum vidis-
364 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
set, C., Div., n. 24, 51 ; Cato said that he, wondered that an haruspex
did not laugh when he saw (another) haruspex. (N5n ridet cum vidit.)
The Subjunctive by Attraction.
[Araneolae] re"te texunt ut si quid inhaeserit confidant, C., N.D., n. 48,
123 ; spiders weave webs to despatch anything that gets caught (si quid
inliaesit, conficiunt). Quare fiebat, ut omnium oculos, quotiescunque in
publicum prodisset, ad s6 converteret, NEP., vn. 3, 5 ; whereby it hap-
pened that he attracted the eyes of all every time he went out in public
(quotiescunque pr odierat, convcrtebat).
NOTE.— The Subjunctive in Iterative Tenses may be accounted for on the principle
that a repeated action which is retrospective from the point of view of the narrator, and
BO naturally takes the Indicative, becomes prospective from the point of view of the
agent, and so takes the Subjunctive. But, however the construction is justified, the fact
remains that the Subjunctive in Iterative Sentences is a growth in Latin. With the
principal tenses it is confined mostly to the Ideal Second Person. Indefinite quis is very
near to this. So CICERO, Bab. Post., 13, 36 : ubi semel quis pSieraverit-oportet.
With Impf . and Plupf . the first examples (excluding cum) are in CATULLUS (LXXXIV. t),
and CAESAR (e.g. B. C., n. 15, 3). Then it spreads, probably under Greek influence,
and is very common in the historians, especially LIVT and TACITUS. Ubi and ut are
the particles employed ; also very often si and relatives, in general qulcumque, quo-
tiSns, etc. With cum, Iterative Subjunctives are found to a limited extent also in CICEBO
and CAESAR ; but all cases of principal tenses in third person have been emended, and
those with historical tenses are not common, and sometimes doubtful.
Cum ferrum s6 Inflexisset, neque Svellere neque pugnare poterant (= vide-
bant 86 n5n posse), CAES., B. G., i. 25, 3 ; when the iron had bent, they found that
they could neither pluck It out nor fight. Incurrere ea gens in Macedonian! solita
erat (as if constituerat) ubi rSgem occupatum externo bello sensisset, L., xxvi.
25, 7 ; that tribe was wont to make a raid on Macedonia, whenever they perceived the
king engrossed in foreign war. QuI unum elus ordinis offendisset omnes ad-
vers5s habebat (as if cert5 sciSbat s5 habiturum), L., xxxin. 46, 1 ; whoso had
offended one of that order was sure to have all against him. Modum adbibendo ubi
r6s posceret, priores erant, L.,m. 19, 3 ; by the use of moderation, when the case
demanded it, they were his superiors.
II. CONTEMPORANEOUS ACTION.
568. Conjunctions used of Contemporaneous Action are :
Bum, donee, ivliile, so long as^ until ; quoad, up to (the
time) that ; quamdiu, as long as ; cum, when.
An action may be contemporaneous in Extent — so long as,
while.
An action may be contemporaneous in Limit — until.
REMARK. — Dum, (while) yet, denotes duration, which may be coex-
tensive, so long as, or not. It is often causal. D5nec (old form d5ni-
cum, used only in the sense until), is parallel with dum in the sense so
long as, until. CICEIIO uses it only as until.
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 365
1. Contemporaneous in Extent.
(So long as, while.)
569. Complete Coextension. — Bum, donee, quoad, quamdiu,
so long as, while, take the Indicative of all the tenses.
Vita dum superest, bene est, MAECENAS (SEN., E.M., 101, 11) ; while
(so long ' as) life remains, 'tis well. Sibi vSro hanc laudem relinquont,
" Vixit, dum vixit, bene," TER., Hec., 461 ; they leave indeed this praise
for themselves, " He lived well while he lived" (all the time). Tiberius
Gracchus tarn diu laudabitur dum memoria rerum Komanarum inanebit, (,'.,
Off., n. 12, 43 ; Tiberius Gracchus shall be praised so long as the
memory of Roman history remains (shall remain). Fuit haec g6ns fortis
dum Lycurgl I5ges vigSbant, C., Tusc., i. 42, 101 ; this nation was brave
so long as the laws of Lycurgus were in force. Donee gratus eram tibJ,
Persarum vigui rgge beatior, H., 0., in. 9, 1 ; while I was pleasing in
your sight, I throve more blessed than Persia's king. Quoad potuit, re-
stitit, CAES., S.G., iv. 12, 5 ; as long as he could, he withstood.
Subjunctive in Oratio Obliqua.
(Regulus dlxit) quam diu iure iurando hostium teneretur non esse se
senatorem, C., Off., in. 27, 100 ; [Regulus said] that as long as he was
bound by his oath to the enemy he was not a senator. (Quamdiu teneor
non sum senator.)
Subjunctive by Attraction.
Faciam ut mel meminerls dum vltam vivas, PL., Pers., 494 (333, 2).
NOTES. — 1. Dum. — In the Past Sphere we have the Pf. (Aor.), Hist. Pr., and Imper-
fect. Of these the -Hist. Pr. is found first in SALLDST (C., 36, 1), and the Impf., while
occurring at all periods, is rare. The Pf . is not in CAESAR. Dum in the Present
Sphere is rare ; the Pure Pr. has heen observed ha PL., B., 737 : mane dum scrlbit,
which looks much like parataxis, and occasionally in CICKBO and later ; the Pure Pf .
is cited only from TERENCE (And., 556, 597), and is only apparent. Several examples
of the Future Sphere are cited, PL., B., 225, n5n metuo tnihi dum h5c valebit
pectus ; TEB., Heaut., 107 ; C., Rosc.Am., 32, 991 ; V., A., i. 607, etc.
Donee is not found in the sense " so long as," until LUCR., v. 178 ; then H., O., i. 9,
16 ; ni, 9, 1. Also Ov., Tr., i. 9, 5. Lrvrr uses it occasionally, but TACITUS affects it,
and employs Hist. Pf., Impf., and Fut. tenses.
Quoad (correlative with ade5) belongs especially to the classical poets, but is also
found in prose. Compare C., Ph., in. n, 28, etc. It is usually found in the Past
Sphere ; in the Present the adverbial force, "so far as," seems to preponderate ; PL.,
Asin., 296 : quoad vlr6s valent. The Future tenses are more common.
Quamdiu (correlative with tamdiu) is found with this usage first in CICERO.
2. When the actions are coextensive, the tenses are generally the same in both mem-
bers, but not always.
570. Partial Coextension. — Dum, while, while yet, dur-
366 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
ing, commonly takes the Present Indicative after all Tenses:
so especially in narrative.
Cape hunc equum, dum tibi virium aliquid superest, L., xxn. 49, 7 ;
take this horse, while you have yet some strength left. Dum haec Romae
aguntur, consoles ambo in Liguribus gerebant bellum, L., xxxix. i, 1;
while these things were going on at Rome, both consuls were carrying on
war in Liguria. Praetermissa gius rei occasio est, dum in castellls reci-
piendis tempus teritur, L., xxxin. 18, 20 ; the opportunity was allowed
to slip by, while time was wasted in recovering miserable forts.
^~ Dum in this sense often resists the change into Snbjv. in 0. 0., especially in
post-classical Latin. (655, B. 3.)
NOTES. — 1. Quamdiu and quoad are, by their composition, ihcapable of being
used in this sense, and as donee was avoided, dum is the only temporal conjunction
of limit that is loose enough in its formation to serve for partial coextension. The
Pr. after it, formally an Hist. Pr., always connotes continuance, and the construction
becomes practically a periphrasis for a missing Pr. participle.
2. The Pure Pr. of the Present Sphere is found occasionally, principally in early
Latin. In this sense the relation is often causal, and the construction is parallel with
the Pr. participle, the lack of which in the passive it supplies.
Ardua dum metuunt (= metuentSs) amittunt v6ra vial, LUCB., i. 660 (372, N. a).
The causal relation is also often present with the other tenses.
3. Other tenses are extremely rare, as the Future ; PL., Men., 214, dum COquStur,
interim potabimus; the Impf., NEP., xxm. 2, 4, quae divlna res dum conficiS-
batur, quaesivit a me.
4. LIVT, xxxu. 24, 5, shows one case of the Plupf . as a shorthand to express the
maintenance of the result, dum averterat = dum a versos t£ne°bat.
2. Contemporaneous in Limit.
(Until.)
571. Dum, donee, quoad, up to (the time) that, until, have
the Present, Historical Present, Historical Perfect, and
Future Perfect Indicative.
Tityre, dum redeo, brevis est via, pasce capellas, V., EC., 9,23; Tity-
rus, while lam returning (= till I return) — the way is short— feed my
kids. Epaminondas ferrum in corpora usque eo retinuit, quoad renuntiatum
est vicisse Eoeotios, Cf. NEP. , xv. 9, 3 ; Epaminondas retained the iron
in his body, until word was brought back that the Boeotians had con-
quered. Donee redilt Marcellus, silentium fait, L., xxm. 31, 9 ; until
Marcellus returned, there was silence. Eaud desinam donee perfScero hoc,
TEB., Ph., 420; I will not cease until I have (shall have) accomplished
it. Exspectabo dum venit, TEE., Eun., 206 ; I mil wait until he comes.
Subjunctive in Oratio Obliqua,
Sclpioni SUanoque donee revocatl ab senatu forent prorogatum imperium
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 367
cst, L., xxvu. 7, 17; Scipio and Silanus had their command extended
until " they should have been recalled by the senate."
NOTES.— 1. With the Past Sphere the idea of limit precludes the employment of a
tense of continuance, which would naturally involve the notion of Overlapping Action.
The Impf. is, therefore, not found until the time of TACITUS (once with d5H6C, H.,
i. 9). With the Present Sphere the tense must be iterative or historical. Otherwise the
Pr. is used by anticipation for the Future.
2. The Fut. Indie, is found occasionally in early Latin, usually, however, the Present.
In the classical times, and afterwards, the Subjv. takes its place. Thus CICERO uses the
Subjv. regularly, after verba exspectandl, except in possibly four passages of the
earlier Orations and Letters.
3. Donee is not uncommon in early Latin, but is very rare in CICERO, and never
occurs in CAESAR. On the other hand, TACITUS shows one hundred and thirty-eight
cases of it.
4. Donicum belongs to early Latin, but is not found in TERENCE ; one case with the
Subjv. is found in NEPOS. Donique is found in LUCRETIUS four times with the Indie.,
always before vowels ; in VITRUVIUS once with Indie., three times with Subjv. ; other-
wise it is not cited.
5. Quoad, tentil, occurs once in PLAUTUS, and with the Subjunctive. Otherwise it is
found with both moods occasionally throughout the language.
6. LIVY introduces donee inversum, like cum inversum (581). Seexxi.46, 6;
xxxv. 50, 4, etc.
572. Bum, donee, and quoad, until, take the Subjunctive
when Suspense and Design are involved.
Verglnius dum collegam consuleret moratus (est), L., iv. 21, 10; Vergi-
nius delayed until he could (long enough to) consult his colleague. At
tanti tibi sit non indulgere theatris, dum bene de vacuo pectore cedat amor,
Ov., Rem.Am,, 751 ; but let it be worth the cost to you (= deem it worth
the cost) not to indulge in play-going, until love be fairly gone from
(your) untenanted bosom.
Often with verba exspectandl, especially exspecto, / wait.
Rusticus exspectat dum defluat amnis, H., Ep., i. 2, 42; the clown waits
for the river to run off (dry).
REMARKS. — i. The Subjv. is sometimes used in narrative with dum,
while, and donee, while, until, to express subordination. The prin-
ciple is that of Partial Obliquity. There is often a Causal or Iterative
sense (like cum, 584, R.).
Dum intentus in eum se rex totus averteret, alter elatam securim in
caput deiecit, L., i. 40, 7; while the king, intent upon him, was turn-
ing quite away, the other raised his axe and planted it in his skull.
(Averteret from the point of view of alter = dum videt avertentem.)
2. Verba exspectandl have also other constructions, as ut, si, quin, but
not the Infinitive.
573. Dum, mods, and dummodO, if only, provided only,
368 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
only, are used with the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive
in Conditional Wishes.
The negative is ne (dum ng = n5 interim).
Oderint dum metuant, Accius (C., Off., i. 28, 97); let them hate so long
as they fear (provided that, if they will only fear). Quo lubeat nubant,
dum dos nS flat comes, PL., AuL, 491 ; let them marry where (= whom)
they please, if but the dowry do not go with them. Dummodo morata
re"ct6 veniat, dotata est satis, PL., AuL, 239; provided only she come with
a good character, she is endowed (= her dowry is) enough. In eo multa
admiranda sunt : eligere modo ciirae sit, QUINT., x. i, 131; many things
in him are to be admired ; only you must be careful to choose. Copia
placandl sit modo parva tul, Ov., Her., 20, 74 (428, E. i).
NOTES. — 1. It has been noticed that TACITUS uses dummodo only in the Germania
and Dialoffits, otherwise dum.
2. Dummodo nS and mod5 nS are found first in CICERO. In post- Augustan Latin
n6n is sometimes used for n6 ; Juv., vn. 222, dummodo non pereat.
III. SUBSEQUENT ACTION.
Antequam and Priusquam with the Indicative'
574. Antequam and prinsquam, before, take the Present,
Perfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, when the limit is
stated as a fact. The Present is used in anticipation of the
Future.
REMARKS. — i. The elements ante, antes, prins, and quam are often
separated.
2. As prius (ante) -quam is negative in its signification (= necdum),
the Indie, is sometimes found where we should expect the Subjunctive.
NOTE.— Antequam is much rarer than priusquam, especially in early Latin, where
it is cited only from CATO, CAELIUS, TERENCE (Hec., 146, with Subjv. in O. O.), and
VARRO. CICEBO prefers it before a Pr. Indie., priusquam elsewhere.
575. The Present Indicative is used after positive sen-
tences.
Antequam ad sententiam redeo, d§ me pauca dlcam, C., Cat., iv. 10, 20 ;
before I return to the subject, I will say a few things of myself. Omnia
experlri cert urn est prius quam pereo, TER., And., 311 ;/ am determined to
try everything before I perish. (Prius quam peream = sooner thanperish,
to keep from perishing.)
NOTES.— 1. The Pure Pf. Indie, is used of Iterative Action, and is rare. (567.)
Dociliora sunt ingenia priusquam obduruSrunt, QUINT., 1. 12, 9 (567).
Instead of this, the Pr. Subjv. is more common in general statements. (567, N.)
2. TACITUS shows no example of the Pr. Indicative.
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 369
576. The Perfect (Aorist) and Future Perfect Indicative
are used both after positive and after negative clauses, chiefly
the latter. '
Heraclio, aliquanto ante quam est mortuus, omnia tradiderat, C., Verr.,
ii. 1 8, 46; some time before he died he had handed over everything to
Heraclius. Lggati non ante profectl quam impositos in nave's mllitSs vldS-
runt, L., xxxiv. 12, 8 ; the envoys did not set out until they saw the
soldiers on board. Neque dSfatigabor ante quam illorum vias rationesque
et pro omnibus et contra omnia disputandl percgpero, C., Or., in. 36, 145 ;
/ will not let myself grow weary before (until) / learn (shall have learned)
their methods of disputing for and against everything.
Subjunctive in Oratio Obliqua.
Themistocles [collegia suis] praeclixit, ut ne prius Lacedaemoniorum
legates dimitterent quam ipse esset remissus, NEP., n. 7, 3(546, 2). (N5n
prius dimittetis quam ego ero remissus.)
REMARK. — After negative clauses containing a historical tense the Pf .
is the rule and the connection is always close : n5n priusquam = dum.
Violations of this rule are very rare ; see 577, 2.
NOTES. — 1. The Fut. is found occasionally in PLAUTUS, but has disappeared by the
time of TERENCE. The Fut. Pf. is never common, but is found atall periods. TACITUS
avoids it, and so do other authors.
2. The Impf . is confined to LIVY, who shows four examples, and to one case in late
Latin. ThePlupf. is found once in CICEKO (Dam., 30, 78), where it may be Iterative,
and once in early Latin.
Antequam and Priusquam with the Subjunctive.
577. Antequam and priusquam are used with the Subjunc-
tive when an ideal limit is given ; when the action is expected,
contingent, designed, or subordinate.
i. An ideal limit involves necessary antecedence, but not necessary
consequence. After positive sentences, the Subjunctive is the rule,
especially in generic sentences and in narrative. (Compare cum, 585.)
After Historical Tenses the Subjunctive is almost invariable when the
action does not, or is not to, take place. The translation is often be-
fore, and the verbal in -ing (Greek vplv with the Infinitive).
Ante vidSmus fulgSrem quam sonum audiamus, SEN., N.Q., n. 12,6;
we see the flash of lightning before hearing the sound (we may never
hear it). But compare LUCB., vi. 170. In omnibus negotiis prius quam
aggrediare adbibenda est praeparatio diliggns, C., Off.,i. 21, 73; in all
affairs, before addressing yourself (to them), you must make use of care-
ful preparation (Ideal Second Person). [Collem] celeriter priusquam ab
24
3/O TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
adversariis sentiatur communit, CAES., B.C., i. 54,4; Tie speedily fortified
the hill before Tie was (too soon to be) perceived by the enemy (prius
quam =: prius quam ut). Hannibal omnia priusquam excederet pugna
(erat) expertus, L.,xxx. 35, 4; Hannibal had tried everything before
withdrawing from the fight (= to avoid withdrawing from the fight).
Saepe magna indolSs virtutis priusquam rel publicae prodesse potuisset
exstincta est, C., Ph., v. 17, 47; often hath great native worth been ex-
tinguished before it could be of service to the State. Ducentis annls ante
quam urbem Bomam caperent in Italiam Galll transcendSrunt, L., v. 33, 5;
(it ivas) two hundred years before their taking Home (that) the Gauls
crossed into Italy (here the Subjv. gives the natural point of reference).
2. After an historical tense in the negative, the Subjunctive is excep-
tional. (576, R.)
Inde non prius egressus est quam (= ibi manebat dum) rex eum in fidem
reciperet, NEP., n. 8, 4; he did not come out until the Jcing should take
him under his protection (he stayed to make the king take him under
his protection). See CAES., B.G., vi. 37, 2; L., XLV. n, 3.
NOTES. — 1. The Pr. Subjv. is common, but is usually generic; the few cases of Final
Subjv. are confined to early Latin. Very rarely the Hist. Pr. is found after a Hist.
Present See CAES., B. C., i. 22.
2. The Pf . occurs occasionally ; it is usually in a final sense.
Non prius dimittunt quam ab bis sit concSssum, CAES., B. G., in. 18.
3. In LIVY we find the Impf . Subjv. used not unfrequently, where the idea of sus-
pense or design is very slight, much after the manner of cum nondum (as C., Ph., v.
i,4).
4. The Plnpf. Subjv. is cited five times from CICERO and four times from LIVT. In
these passages the completion rather than the continuance is in suspense.
5. Postridiequain is found in PLATJTUS, CICERO (Letters), and SUETONIUS with
the Indicative. In CICERO, Ac., n. 3, 9, with the Subjunctive. PridiSquam is found
in PLAUTUS and CICERO with the Indicative ; in LIVT, VAL. MAX., and SUETONIUS
with the Subjunctive. Both are very rare.
6. When the will is involved, potius quam is used in the same way as prius quam.
Depugna potius quam servias, C., Alt. vn. 7, 7 ; fight It out rather than be a
slave.
IV. CONSTRUCTIONS OF CUM (QTJOM).
578. Cum is a (locative) relative conjunction.
NOTE. — Originally locative (where), quom became temporal (when) like nbi. When
time is not defined by a fixed date, it readily becomes circumstance, and this circum-
stance is interpreted as cause, condition, and the like. Compare the circumstantial
relative itself. The first construction was with the Indicative as with any other merely
relative clause, and this is the sole constniction in earliest Latin. But, beginning with
TERENCE, we can observe the drift ever increasing in Latin towards the expression of
. character by tendency (Subjv.) rather than by fact (Indie.), so that the relative of char-
acter takes more and more the Subjunctive, and cum follows the lead of ut and of the
inflected relative pronoun.
579. There are two great uses of cum :
L Temporal cum (when, &0ra),.with the Indicative.
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 37!
II. Circumstantial cum (as, whereas), with the Subjunc-
tive.
In the second usage the relation is still purely a matter of
inference ; but according to this inferential connection we
distinguish :
(a) Historical cum, as, giving the attendant circumstances,
mainly temporal, under which an action took place.
(b) Causal cum, as, whereas, since, indicating that the
main action proceeded from the subordinate one.
(c) Concessive cum, ivhereas, although, indicating that the
main action was accomplished in spite of that of the subor-
dinate clause.
I. Cum vSr appetit, mllites ex hlbernls movent, when spring ap-
proaches, soldiers move out of winter-quarters.
II. (a) Cum vSr appeteret, Hannibal ex hlbernls mSvit, as spring ivas
approaching (spring approaching), Hannibal moved out of winter-
quarters.
(b) Cum v6r appetat, ex hlbernls movendum est, as (since) spring is
approaching, we must move out of winter-quarters.
(c) Cum v6r appeteret, tamen hosted ex hlbernls n5n m5vgrunt, whereas
(although) spring was approaching, nevertheless the enemy did not move
out of winter-quarters.
1 . Temporal Cum.
580. Cum, when, is used with all the tenses of the Indica-
tive to designate merely temporal relations.
In the Principal clause, a temporal adverb or temporal expression
is frequently employed, such as turn, tune, then ; nunc, now ; diSs, day ;
tempus, time ; iam, already ; vix, scarcely, and the like.
Animus, nee cum adest nee cum discSdit, apparet, C., Cat. 31., 22, 80;
the soul is not visible, either when it is present, or when it departs.
Stomachor cum aliorum n5n m5 digna in me" conferuntur, C., Plane., 14, 35 ;
/ get fretted when other people's jokes that are not worthy of me are
foisted on me. [Sex librSs dS re" publica] turn scrlpsimus cum gubernacula
rel publicae tenebamus, C., Div., n. i, 3; I wrote the six books about the
State at the time when I held the helm of the State. Eecordare tempus
illud cum pater Curio maergns iacSbat in lecto, C., Ph., n. 18, 45; remem-
ber the time when Curio the father lay abed from grief. Longum illud
tempus cum non ero magis me movet quam hoc exiguum, C., Att., xn. 18, 1 ;
that long time (to come), when I shall not exist, has more effect on me
than this scant (present time). Iam dilucescebat cum signum consul
372 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
dedit, L., xxxvi. 24, 6; by this time day was beginning to dawn, when
the consul gave the signal. (See 581.)
Ideal Second Person with the Subjunctive :
Pater, hominum imnortalis est rnfjLtnja, Etiani torn vivit quom esse
credas mortuam, PL., Pers., 355; Father, immortal is the ill-fame of the
world. It lives on even when you think that it is dead.
But the presence of a temporal adverb does not mean necessarily that
the cum clause is merely temporal.
REMARKS. — i. Fuit cum commonly follows the analogy of other
characteristic relatives (631), and takes the Subjunctive :
Fuit tempus cum (= fuit cum) rura colerent homings, VARRO, R.R., in.
i, 1 ; there was a time when all mankind tilled fields = were countrymen.
The Indie, is rare.
2. Meminl cum, / remember the time when, takes the Indie., but
audire cum takes the Subjv. parallel with the participle :
Memini cum mihi desipere vidsbare, C., Fam., vn. 28, 1; / remember
the time when you seemed to me to show the worst possible taste. Audlvl
Metr odor urn cum dS ils ipsis rebus disputaret, C., Or., n. 90, 365; I have
heard Metrodorus discussing) these very matters.
3. Peculiar is the use of cum with Lapses of Time. Lapses of Time
are treated as Designations of Time in Accusative or Ablative :
Multi anni sunt cum (= multos annos) in aere meo est, C., Fain,., xv.
14, 1; (it is) many years (that) he has been (230) in my debt. Permultl
anni iam erant cum inter patricios magistrates tribundsque nulla certa-
mina fuerant, L., ix. 33, 3; very many years had elapsed since there had
been any struggles between the patrician magistrates and the tribunes.
Nondum centum et decent anni sunt cum (= ex quo = abbinc annos) dS pe-
cunils repetundis lata lex est, C., Off., n. 21, 75; it is not yet one hundred
and ten years since the law concerning extortion was proposed.
NOTES. — 1. In PLAUTUS cum with the Indie, may be explicative, causal, concessive,
adversative. Explicative: salvos quom {that) advenis, gaudeo, Most., 1128. Caus-
al : salvos quom (sinee) peregrg advenis, c6na detur, £., 536. C'<mcessive : [servi]
quom (although) culpa carent, tamen malum metuont, Most., 859. Aditrsatite:
insanire mS aiunt, ultro quom (whereas) ipsi insaniunt, Men., 831.
The same holds true for TERENCE, except that the Subjv. is now making its appear-
ance in cases where it can be neither potential, ideal, nor attracted, as Hec., 341 : n6n
vlsam uxorem Pamphili, quom in proxumo bic sit aegra 1
Of course, this prevalence of the Indie, does not exclude the attraction into the
Subjv., nor does it exclude the regular potential use.
2. The explicative use dies out, except where it is akin to the conditional ; but it
always retains the Indicative. With Causal and Concessive-Adversative uses, the
Subjv. is used more and more in place of the Indicative.
3. In early Latin we find quoniam and quandS, used sometimes with the force of
quom. In the case of quoniam several examples are cited from PLAUTUS, in most of
which, however, the causal conception lies very close at hand ; the temporal force seems
to have disappeared by the time of TERENCE, and only reappears in GELLIUS. The
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 373
temporal nsage of quandS is still the prevailing one in PLAUTUS, over seventy instances
having been collected. Of these the majority are in the Present and Future Spheres, in
which the shift to the causal conception is very easy ; many of them are also iterative.
In TEBENCE the temporal usage of quandS has disappeared unless possibly in one
passage (Ad., 206), but sporadic cases are found later, even in CICERO.
Quoniam hinc est profecturus peregre thensaurum demonstravit mini,
PL., Trin., 149. Turn, quandS I6gat5s Tyrum mlsimus, C., Leg.Agr., u. 16, 41.
581. Cum Inversum. When the two actions are indepen-
dent, cum is sometimes used with the one which seems to be
logically the principal clause, just as in English.
lam non longius blcliii via aberant, cum duas venissc legiones cognoscuiu,
CAES., B.G., vi. 7, 2 ; they were now distant not more than two days'
march, when they learned that two legions were come.
Similar is the addition of an illustrative fact, often causal or adversa-
tive, by cum interea (interim), quidem, tamen, etc., with the Indicative.
582. Explicative cum. — When the actions of the two
clauses are coincident, cum is almost equivalent to its kin-
dred relative quod, in that.
Aiacem, hunc quom vidSs, ipsum vides, PL., Copt., 615 ; when you see
him, you see Ajax himself. • Cum tacent, clamant, C., Cat., i. 8, 21 ; when
(= in that) they are silent, they cry aloud. Dixi omnia cum hominem
nominavl, PLIN., Ep., iv. 22, 4; I have said everything, in naming the
man.
583. Conditional cum. — Cum with the Future, Future
Perfect, or Universal Present, is often almost equivalent to
si, if, with which it is sometimes interchanged.
Cum poscgs, posce Latlng, Juv., xi. 148; when (if) you (shall) ask (for
anything), ask in Latin. Cum veniet contra, digits compesce labellum,
Juv., 1. 160 ; when (if) he meets you, padlock your lip with your finger.
584. Iterative cum. — Cum in the sense of quotiens, as often
as, takes the Tenses of Iterative Action.
Solet cum se" purgat in me cSnferre omnem culpam, C., Alt., ix. 2 A, 1;
lie, is accustomed, when he clears himself, to put off all the blame on me.
[Ager] cummultos annos requievit uberiorSs efferre fruggs solet, C., Br., 4,
16 (567). Cum palam eius anull ad palmam converterat (Gyges) a nullo
videbatur, C., Off., m. 9, 38 (567).
REMARK. — The Subjv. is also found (567, N.) :
Cum in ius duel dSbitorem vidissent, undique convolabant, L., n. 27, 8 ;
whenever they saw a debtor taken to court, they made it a rule to hurry
together from all quarters.
374 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
2. Circumstantial Cum.
585. Historical cum. — Cum, ivhen (as), is vised in narra-
tive with the Imperfect Subjunctive of contemporaneous
action,, with the Pluperfect Subjunctive of antecedent action,
to characterise the temporal circumstances under which an
action took place.
[Agesilaus] cum ex Aegypto reverterStur decgssit, N EP. , xvn. 8, 6 ; Agesi-
laus died as he was returning from Egypt. Zenonem cum Athenis essem
audiebam frequenter, C., N. D., I. 21, 59; when I was (being) at Athens,
1 heard Zeno (lecture) frequently. Ath6ni6ns5s cum statuerent ut nave's
conscenderent, Cyrsilum quendam suadentem ut in urbe mangrent, lapidibus
obruerunt, C., Off., in. n, 48 (546).
Cum Caesar Anconam occupavisset, urbem rellquimus, C., Finn., xvi. 12,
2 ; when (as) Caesar had occupied Ancona (Caesar having occupied
Ancona), I left the city. Attalus moritur alters et septuagesimo ann5,
cum quattuor et quadraginta annos regnasset, L.. xxxin. 21, 1; Attalus
died in his seventy-second year, having reigned forty-four years.
REMARK. — The subordinate clause generally precedes. The circum-
stantiality often appears as causality, but sometimes the exact shade
cannot be distinguished. Owing to this implicit character, cum with
the Subjv. is a close equivalent to the participle, and often serves to
supply its absence. Compare 611 with 631, 2.
NOTES. — 1. How closely allied the ideas of time and circumstance are, in these
constructions, is seen from such examples as this :
Cum varicgs secabantur C. Mario, dolSbat, C., Tusc., n. 15, 35 (time). Marina
cum secarBtur, ut supra dlxl, vetuit, etc., C., Tusc., n. 22, 53 (circumstances).
Cum ad tribum Polliam ventum est, (date) et praeco cunctarStur (cir-
cumstances) citare ipsum c6ns5rem; Cita, inquit Nero, M. Llvium, L.,xxix.
37,8.
2. The use of temporal particles with the Pr. is necessarily limited to iterative or
causal (adversative) relations. Hence there is no room for the circumstantial cum with
the Suhjv. except so far as it is causal-adversative. Fut. and Put. Pf . are found chiefly
in general or iterative relations.
3. By attraction similar to that with quod (541, N. 3) and other relatives, cum diceret,
with an Inf., is found where diceret would be more naturally omitted or inserted as
(ut dlcebat) ; so cum adsentire sS diceret for cum adsentiret, L., i. 54, 1. Simi-
larly with cum causal : " saying, as he did," C., Mil., 5, 12.
586. Causal cum. — Cum, when, whereas, since, seeing that,
with any tense of the Subjunctive, is used to denote the rea-
son, and occasionally the motive, of an action (580, N. 1).
Quae cum ita sint, effectum est njhil esse malum quod turpe non sit, C.,
Fin., in. 8, 29 ; since these things are so, it is made out (proved) that
nothing is bad that is not dishonourable. Cum [Ath6nas] tamquam ad
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 375
mercaturam bonarum artium sis profectus, inanem redlre turpissinmni est,
C., Off., in. 2, 6; os (since) you set out for Athens as if to market for ac-
complishments, it would be utterly disgraceful to return empty (handed).
Dolo erat pugnandum, cum par non esset armls, NEP., xxm. 10, 4 ; he had
to fight by stratagem, as lie (seeing that he) was not a match in arms.
REMARKS. — i. The characteristic nature of the Subjv. with cum
comes out more clearly in the causal connection, owing to the parallel
with utpote, quippe, and the relative (626, N.).
2. The primary tenses are more common, in this connection, but the
historical tenses are abundant enough. With the latter the causal
relation need never be emphasised.
587. Concessive and Adversative cum. — Causal cum,
whereas, becomes Concessive cum, wliereas, although, with
the Subjunctive, when the cause is not sufficient ; the rela-
tion is often adversative, and there is no limitation as to
tense.
The temporal notion is still at work; whether the times are for or
against an action is a matter outside of language (580, N. 1).
Nihil mS adiuvit cum posset, C., Att., ix. 13, 3 ; he gave me no assist-
ance, although (at a time when) he had it in his power. Cum primi
ordines hostium conciclissent, tamen acerrime reliqul resistebant, CAES.,
B.G., vn. 62, 4; although the first ranks of the enemy had fallen (been
cut to pieces), nevertheless the rest resisted most vigorously. Perlre artem
putamus nisi apparet, cum dSsinat ars esse, si apparet, QUINT., iv. 2, 127;
we think that (our) art is lost unless it shows, whereas it ceases to be art
if it shows.
REMARKS. — i. To emphasise the adversative idea, tamen is often
added in the principal clause.
2. Adversative cum n5n, whereas not, is often conveniently trans-
lated without; cum non Inferior fuisset, C., Off., i. 32, 116 ; without
being inferior.
588. Cum — turn. i. When cum, when, turn, then, have the
same verb, the verb is put in the Indicative. Cum — turn then
has the force of both — and especially, and a strengthening
adverb, such as maxime, praecipue, is often added to the
latter.
(Pausanias) consilia cum patriae turn sib! ininuca capiebat , NEP. , iv. 3, 3 ;
Pausanias conceived plans that were hurtful both to his country and
especially to himself.
3/6 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
2. When they have different verbs, the verb with cum is
usually in the Indicative, but may be in the Subjunctive,
especially when the actions of the two verbs are not contem-
porary ; this Subjunctive often has a concessive force.
[ Sisennae historia | cum facile omnes vincat superiores. turn indicat tanien
quantum absit a summ5, C., Br., 64, 228; although the history of Sisenna
easily surpasses all former histories, yet it shows how far it is from the
highest (mark).
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
589. In Conditional Sentences the clause which contains
the condition (supposed cause) is called the Prdtasis, that
which contains the consequence is called the Apodosis.
Logically, Protasis is Premiss ; and Apodosis, Conclusion.
Grammatically, the Apodosis is the Principal, the Protasis
the Dependent, clause.
590. Sign of the Conditional. — The common conditional
particle is si, if.
NOTES.— 1. SI is a locative case, literally, so, in those circumstances (comp. si-c, so,
and the English : " I would by combat make her good, so were I a man."— SHAKE-
SPEARE). Hence, conditional clauses with si may be regarded as adverbs in the Abl.
case, and are often actually represented by the Abl. Absolute.
Sic is found as the correlative of si in the colloquial language, as : sic scrlbgs all-
quid, si vacabis (C., Aft., xn. 38, 2) ; sic ignovisse putato me tibi, si cenas liodie
mecum (H., Ep., i. 7, 69). Instead of sic, its equivalent turn occurs at all periods, being
in the Augustan time restricted to formal uses. Igitur is also found as late as CICEKO,
who likewise uses ita. Other particles are post-classical.
2. The connection with the Causal Sentence is shown by si quidem, which in later
Latin is almost = quoniam ; see 595, K. 5.
3. The temporal particles cum and quandS, when, and the locative ubi, are also
used to indicate conditional relations in which the idea of Time or Space is involved.
591. Negative of si. — The negative of si is si non or nisi.
(a) With si non, if not, the non negatives the single word ;
hence an opposing positive is expected, either in a preceding
condition, or in the conclusion. Therefore, si non is the rule :
i . When the positive of the same verb precedes.
SI fSceris, magnam habebS gratiam ; si non feceris, IgnOscam, C., Fam.,
v. 19 ; if you do it, I will be very grateful to you; if you do not, I will
forgive (you).
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 377
2. When the Condition is concessive ; in this case the prin-
cipal clause often contains an adversative particle.
Si mihl bona r5 publica frul non licuerit, at carebo mala, C., Mil., 34,
93 ; if I shall not be allowed to enjoy good government, 1 shall at least
be rid of bad.
(b) With nisi, unless, the negative ni- refers to the princi-
pal clause, which is thus denied, if the conditional clause is
accepted ; hence :
1. Nisi adds an exception or restriction to the leading
statement. Compare the general use of nisi, except (R. 2).
Nisi molestumst, paucls percontarier (130, 6) volo ego ex t5, PL., Rud.,
120; if it is not disagreeable, I wish to ask you a few questions.
So the formulae nisi fallor (ni fallor is found first in OVID), nisi m8
omnia fallunt (C., Att., viu. 7, 1), and the like.
2. Nisi is in favorite use after negatives.
Parvl (= nihill) sunt foris anna nisi est consilium domi, C., Off., I. 22,
76 (411, R. 2). [Non] possem vivere nisi in lltterls viverem, C., Fam., ix.
26, 1 ; I could not live unless I lived in study. Memoria minuitur nisi
earn exerceas, C., Cat.M., 7, 21; memory wanes unless (except) you exer-
cise it. (SI n5n exerceas, in case you fail to exercise it.)
So more often than si nSn, in asseverations. Peream nisi sollicitus
sum, C., Fam., xv. 19, 4 ; may I die if I am not troubled.
REMARKS. — i. Sometimes the difference is unessential :
Nisi Curi5 fuisset, hodiS t5 muscae comSdissent, Cf. QUINT., xi. 3, 129;
if it had not been for Curio, the flies would have eaten you up this day.
SI n5n fuisset would be equally correct.
2. Nisi is often used after negative sentences or equivalents in the
signification of but, except, besides, only :
Inspice quid portem ; nib.il hie nisi trlste videbis, Ov., Tr., in. i, 9;
examine what I am bringing ; you will see nothing here except (what is)
sad. Falsus honor iuvat et mendax Infamia terret, quern nisi mendosum
et medicandum? H., Ep., i. 16, 39 ; "false honour charms and lying
slander scares," whom but the faulty and the fit for physic ?
So nisi si, except in case, with a following verb ; occasional in early
Latin, more common later, but not in CAES. (B. G. , i. 31, 14, is disputed),
SALL., VERG., HOR. Nisi ut, except on condition that, is post-classical.
Necesse est Casilinenses se dedere Eanniball ; nisi si malunt fame* perlre,
C., Inv., n. 57, 171; the people of Casilinum must needs surrender to
Hannibal ; unless (except in case) they prefer to perish by hunger.
3. Nisi quod introduces an actual limitation — with the exception, that
(525, 2, N. 2) ; so praeterquam quod ; nisi ut (e. g. C., Imp., 23, 67).
378 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
Nihil acciderat [Polycratl] quod nollet nisi quod annlum quo deiectabatur
in marl abiecerat, C., Fin,, v. 30, 92 ; nothing had happened to Poly-
crates that he could not have wished, except that he had thrown into the
sea a ring in which he took delight (= a favorite ring). Nihil peccat
nisi quod nihil peccat, PLIX., Ep., ix. 26, 1; he makes no blunder except
— that he makes no blunder (" faultily faultless ").
4. Nisi forte (found very often in CICERO, very rarely earlier), unless,
perhaps, nisi vSro (peculiar to CICERO), unless, indeed, with the Indie.,
either limit a previous statement, or make an ironical concession :
Nemo" fere saltat sobrius nisi forte Insanit, C., Mur., 6, 13; there is
scarce any one that dances (when) sober, unless perhaps he is cracked.
Plenum forum est eorum hominum, . . . nisi .vero paucos fuisse arbitramini,
C., Sull., g, 28; the forum is full of those men; unless, indeed, you
think they were (but) few.
NOTES.— 1. Nisi is sometimes strengthened by tamen, but, yet.
Nisi etiam hie opperiar tamen paulisper, PL., Aid., 805 ; Of. C., Alt., v. 14, 3.
Even without tamen it is adversative in colloquial Latin, especially after nescio.
2. Nl is found mostly in early Latin and the poets, and in legal formulas and collo-
quial phrases. It is rare in CICERO, and never used in CAESAR.
Peream nl piscem putavl esse, VARRO, S.R., in. 3, 9 ; may I die if I did not
think it wa-s a fish.
3. Nisi forte is found occasionally with the Subjv. from APULBIUS on.
592. Two Conditions excluding each the other. — When
two conditions exclude each the other, si is used for the first ;
sin, if not (but if), for the second.
Sin is further strengthened by autem, vero (rare), but;
minus, less (not); secus (rare), otherwise; aliter, else.
Mercatura, si tennis est, sordida putanda est ; sin magna et copiosa, non
est admodum vituperanda, C., Off., I. 42, 151; mercantile business, if it
is petty, is to be considered dirty (work); if (it is) not (petty, but) great
and abundant (= conducted on a large scale), it is not to be found fault
with much.
REMARK. — If the verb or predicate is to be supplied from the
context, si minus, if less (not), sin minus, sin aliter, */ otherwise, are
commonly used, rarely si non :
Educ tecum omnes tuos ; si minus, quam plurimos, C., Cat., I. 5, 10;
take out with you all your (followers) ; if not, as many as possible.
Odero si potero ; si n5n, invitus amabo, Ov., Am., in. n, 35 (242, R. 2).
NOTE. — Much less common are simple si, or si strengthened by non, nihil, nflllus,
minus, or by autem, vSro ; or sed si, at si (COL.), si contra (HOR., PLIN.). Sin may
also be followed by n5n, but commonly only when one or more words intervene.
PCma cruda si sunt, vix Svelluntur ; si mattira, decidunt, C., Cat.M., 19, 71;
if fruit is green it can hardly be plucked, if rii>e it falls (of it
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 379
593. Other Forms of the Protasis. — i. The Protasis may
be expressed by a Relative.
ftul vidgret, urbem captam dlceret, C., Verr., iv. 23, 52; whoso had seen
it, had said that the city was taken. Mlraretur qui turn cerneret, L.,
xxxiv. 9, 4 (258).
2. The Protasis may be contained in a Participle.
Si latet ars, pr5dest ; affert deprensa pudorem, Ov., A. A., n. 313 ; art,
if concealed, does good ; detected, it brings shame. Maxima's virtutSs
iacere omngs necesse est voluptate dominante, C., Fin., n. 35, 117 ; all the
greatest virtues must necessarily lie prostrate, if the pleasure (of the
senses) is mistress. Nihil [potest] gvenlre nisi causa anteegdente, C., Fat.,
15, 34; nothing can happen, unless a cause precede.
3. The Protasis may be involved in a modifier.
Fgcgrunt id servl Mil8nis quod suos quisque servos in tali rg facere volu-
isset, C., Mil., 10, 29 ; the servants of Milo did what each man would
have wished his servants to do in such case (si quid tale accidisset). At
bene n5n poterat sine ptLr5 pectore vivl, LUCR., v. 18 ; but there could be no
good living without a clean heart (nisi purum pectus esset). Neque enim
materiam ipsam (cgnsgbant) cohaergre potuisse si nulla vl contingrgtur,
neque vim sine aliqua materia, C., Ac., i. 6, 24.
4. The Protasis may be expressed by an Interrogative, or,
what is more common, by an Imperative or equivalent.
Trlstis es ? indignor quod sum tibi causa doloris, Ov., Tr., iv. 3, 33 (542).
Cgdit amor rgbus : rgs age, tutus eris, Ov., Rem.Am., 144 ; love yields to
business ; be busy (if you plunge into business), you will be safe. Im-
muta (verbOrum collocationem), perierit totargs, C., Or., 70, 232 (244, E. 4).
Classification of Conditional Sentences.
594. Conditional sentences may be divided into three
classes, according to the character of the Protasis :
I. Logical Conditional Sentences : si, with the Indicative.
II. Ideal Conditional Sentences : si, chiefly with Present
and Perfect Subjunctive.
III. Unreal Conditional Sentences : si, with Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive.
NOTES.— 1. In some grammars of Greek and Latin, conditional sentences, and sen-
tences involving conditional relations, have been divided into particular and general.
Whether a condition be particular or general depends simply on the character of the
Apodosis. Any form of the Conditional Sentence may be general, if it implies a rule of
action. The forme for Iterative action have been given (566, 567).
380 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
2. Conditional Sentences with the Subjunctive (Ideal and Unreal) are best understood
by comparing the forms of the Ideal and Unreal wish which have the same mood and
the same tenses. The Unreal wish of the Past is the Plupf ., that of the Present is the
Irnpf. Subjunctive. The Ideal wish is the Pr. and Pf. Subjunctive. The same tem-
poral relations appear in the conditional.
I. LOGICAL CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
595. The Logical Conditional Sentence simply states the
elements in question, according to the formula : if this is so,
then that is so ; if this is not so, then that is not so.
It may be compared with the Indicative Question.
The Protasis is in the Indicative : the Apodosis is generally
in the Indicative ; but in future relations any equivalent of
the Future (Subjunctive, Imperative) may be used.
PROTASIS. APODOSIS.
Si id credis, erras,
If you believe that, you are going wrong.
SI id cr edebas, errabas,
If you believed that, you were going wrong,
Si id cr edidisti, errasti,
If you (have) believed that, you went (have gone) wrong.
SI id cred6s, errabis,
If you (shall) believe that, you ivill (be) go(iag) wrong (234, E.).
SI id crSdideris, erraver is,
If you (shall have) believe(d) that, you will have gone (will go) wrong.
SI quid crSdidisti, erras,
If you have believed anything
(= when you believe anything), you go wrong. Comp. 569.
SI quid crgdideras, errabas,
If you had believed anything
(— when you believed anything), you ivent wrong.
SI splritum ducit, vlvit, C., Inv., I. 46, 86; if Tie is drawing (his) 'breath
(breathing) Tie is living. Parvi sunt foris anna nisi est consilium doml,
C., Off., i. 22, 76 (411, E. 2). Si occidl, rgctS feel ; sed non occidi, QUINT.,
rv. 5, 13 ; if I killed him, I did right ; but I did not kill him. [Natu-
ram] si sequBmur ducem, numquam aberrabimus, C., Off., I. 28, 100; if we
(shall) follow nature (as our) guide, we shall never go astray. [Im-
probos ] si meus consulatus sustulerit, multa saecula propagarit rel publicae
C., Cat., ii. 5, 11; if my consulship shall have done away with the de-
structives, it loill have added many ages to the life of the State. Si pSs
condoluit, si dens, ferre non possumus, C., Tusc., n. 22, 52 (567). Stomacha-
batur senex, si quid asperius dixeram, C., N.D., i. 33, 93 (567). Vlvam, si
vivet ; si cadet ilia, cadam, PROP., n. (in.) 28 (25), 42 (8); let me live, if
she lives; if she falls, let me fall. Nunc si forte poles, sed non potes,
optima coniunx, flnitis gaude tot mini morte malls, Ov., Ti:. in. 3, 55;
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 381
now, if haply you can, but you cannot, noble wife, rejoice that so many
evils have been finished for me by death. Flectere si nequeo superos,
Acheronta mov5b8, V., A., vn. 312; */ I can't bend the gods above, I'll
rouse (all) hell below. SI tot exempla virtutis non movent, nihil umquam
movebit ; si tanta clacles vilem vitam non fecit, nulla faciet, L., xxn. 60,
14; if so many examples of valour stir you not, nothing will ever do it ;
if so great a disaster has not made life cheap, none (ever) wilL DesinSs
timere, si sperare desierls, SEN., E.M., i. 5, 7 ; you will cease to fear, if
you (shall have) cease(d) to hope. Peream male, si non optimum erat,
H., S., n. i, 6 ; may I die the death if it was not best. SI volebas parti-
ciparl, auferres (= auferre debebas) dlmidium domum, PL., True., 748; if
you wished to share in it, you should have taken the half home. Respi-
rar5 si te vldero, C., Att., n. 24, 5; I shall breathe again, if I shall have
seen you.
REMARKS. — i. After a verb of Saying or Thinking (Oratio Obllqua),
the Protasis must be put in the Subjv., according to the rule.
(SI id credis, erras.) Dico, te, si id credas, errare.
Dm, te, si id crederes, errare.
(Si id cre"des, errabis.) Dico, te, si id credas, erraturum esse.
Dlxl, te, si id crederes, erraturum esse.
(SI id credidisti, errastl.) Dico, te, si id crediderls, errasse.
Dlxl, te, si id credidisses, errasse.
For examples, see Oratio Obllqua, 657.
2. The Subjv. is used by Attraction :
[ArSneolae] rete texunt ut si quid inhaeserit confidant, C., N.D., n. 48,
123 (567). (SI quid inhaesit conflciunt.)
3. The Ideal Second Person takes the Subjv. in connection with
the Universal Present :
(Senectus) plena est voluptatis si ilia scias uti, SEN., E.M., 12, 4; old
age is full of pleasure if you know (if one knows) how to enjoy it.
Memoria minuitur nisi earn exerceas, C., Cat.M., 7, 21 (591, b. 2).
4. Sive — sive (seu — seu) almost invariably takes the Logical form.
(496, 2.) The Subjv. is occasionally used by Attraction or with the
Ideal Second Person.
Seu vicit, ferociter mstat victls ; seu victus est, Instaurat cum victoribus
certamen, L., xxvn. 14, 1 ; if he vanquishes (567), he presses the van-
quished furiously ; if he is vanquished, he renews the, struggle, with the
vanquishers.
5. Slquidem, as giving the basis for a conclusion, often approaches
the causal sense (590, N. 2). In this case the Apodosis precedes.
Molesta veritas, slquidem ex ea nascitur odium, C., Lael., 24, 89;
truth is burdensome, if indeed (since) hatred arises from it.
6. SI mod6, if only, serves to limit the preceding statement.
382 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
A deo tantum rationem habemus, si modo habemus. C., N.D., in. 28,
71 ; all that we have from God is (bare) reason, if only we have it.
SI vSro when thus used is ironical (C., Ph., vin. 8, 24). SI tamen
seems to be post-classical.
NOTES.— 1. Phraseological are si quaeris (quaerimus) in a sense approaching that
of profecto (C., Off., m. 20, 80 ; Tusc., m. 29, 73) : SI dls placet, if the gods will,
often ironical (Cf. TEE., Eun., 919 ; C., Fin., n. 10, 31). SI forte, peradventure (C.,
Or., ra. 12, 47 ; MU., 38, 104).
2. It will be observed that the tense involved depends in each member upon the
sense. But for this very reason certain combinations would be uncommon. Thus
Pr.— Impf. and Fut. — Pr. are rare ; Pr. — Put. is more common in ante-classical and
post-classical Latin than Fut.— Fut., the Pres. being used by anticipation. CICERO
prefers Fut.— Fut. CICERO also uses frequently Fut. Pf .— Fut. Pf ., which is also found
elsewhere, but rarely. Pf .— Fut. is found first in CICERO, and is never common ; also
Impf. — Impf. Plupf. — Impf. is mostly found in ante-classical and post-classical Latin.
The Pf., by anticipation for Fut. Pf., is not nnfrequent in early Latin. So C., Fam.,
xn. 6, 2 : (Brfitus) si cSnservatus erit, vlcimus (237) ; Of. SEN., Ben., in. 62, 145.
PL., Poen., 671, shows us our only example of Pr.— Fut. Pf . : Rex sum, si ego ilium
ad me adlexero.
II. IDEAL CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
596. The Ideal Conditional Sentence represents the mat-
ter as still in suspense. The supposition is more or less fanci-
ful, and no real test is to be applied. There is often a wish
for or against. The point of view is usually the Present.
i. The Protasis is put in the Present Subjunctive for con-
tinued action, and in the Perfect Subjunctive for completion
or attainment.
The Apodosis is in the Present or Perfect Subjunctive.
The Imperative and Future Indicative or equivalents are
often found. The Universal Present is frequently used,
especially in combination with the Ideal Second Person (595,
B. 3 ; 663, 2).
On the difference between Subjunctive and Future, see 257.
PROTASIS. APODOSIS.
SI id credas, erres,
If you should (were to) believe that, you would be going wrong.
Si id credas, erraveris,
If you should (were to) believe that, you would go wrong.
Si id credideris, erres,
1. If you should (prove to) have believed
that (Perfect ; Action Past or Future), you would be going wrong.
2. If you should (come to) believe that (Aor. ;
Action Future), you would be going wrong.
SI id credideris, erraveris (rare),
If you (should have) believe(d) that, you would (have) <?o(ne) wrong.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 383
Si vlcinus tuus equum meliorem habeat quam tuus est, tuumne equum
malls an illlus? C., Inv., i. 31, 52 ; if your neighbour (were to) have a
letter horse than yours is, would you prefer your horse or his 9 SI
gladium quis apud te sana mente deposuerit, repetat Insaniens, reddere
peccatum sit, officium non reddere, C., Off., in. 25, 95 ; if a man in sound
mind were to deposit (to have deposited) a sword with you, (and) reclaim
it (when) mad, it would be wrong to return it, right not to return it.
Hanc viam si asperam esse negem, mentiar, C., Sest., 46, 100 ; if I should
say that this way is not rough, I should lie. SI nunc mS suspendam
meam operam luserim, et mels inimicis voluptatem creaverim, PL., Cos.,
424; should I hang myself now, I should (thereby) (have) fool(ed) my
work away, and give(n) to my enemies a charming treat. Ciceroni nemo
ducentSs nunc dederit nummos nisi fulserit anulus ingens, Juv., vn. 139 ;
no one would give Cicero nowadays two hundred two-pences unless a
huge ring glittered (on his hand). SI quis furioso praecepta det, erit ipso
quern monebit, Insanior, SEN., E.M., 94, 17; if one should give advice to a
madman, he will be more out of his mind than the very man whom he
advises. SI valeant homines, ars tua, Phoebe, iacet, Ov., Tr., iv. 3, 78;
should men keep well, your art, Phoebus, is naught. 5tia si tollas,
perisre Cupldinis arcus, Ov., Bern. Am., 139 (204, N. 6). (Senectus) est
plena voluptStis, si ilia scias uti, SEN., E.M., 12, 4 (595, E. 3). Memoria
minuitur nisi earn exerceas, C., Cat.M., 7, 21 (591, b. 2). Nulla est excu-
satio peccatl, si amlcl causa peccaverls, C., Lael., n, 37; it is no excuse
for a sin to have sinned for the sake of a friend.
2. The Point of View may be the Past. In that case the
Protasis is found in the Imperfect, very rarely the Pluper-
fect Subjunctive, and the Apodosis has corresponding forms.
This usage, however, is rare, inasmuch as it coincides in
form with the Unreal Condition, from which, it is distin-
guishable only by a careful study of the context. When found
with indefinite persons, the construction is the Potential of
the Past.
The idea of Partial Obliquity frequently enters, in which
case si may often be translated, in case that.
Quod usu non veniebat de eo si quis legem constituent non tarn prohi-
b5re videretur quam adinonere, C., Tull., 4, 9; if one should make a law
about that which was not customary, he would seem not so much to pre-
vent as to warn. (Present : si quis constituat, videatur.) Si Alfenus turn
indicium accipere vellet, denique omnia quae postulates facere voluisset, quid
agergs 1 C., Quinct., 26, 83 ; in case Alfenus was willing then to under-
take the trial, and should have been willing afterwards to do all that
you required, what were you to do ? (See the whole passage — Present :
384 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
si nunc velit, . . . voluerit, agas.) Si tribuni mg triumphare probibgrent,
Furium et Aemilium testgs citaturus fui, L., xxxvni. 47; should the tri-
bunes prevent me from triumphing, I was going to summon Furius and
Aemilius as witnesses. Quid faceret 1 si vivere vellet, Seianus rogandus
erat, SEN., Cons.Marc., 22, 6 ; what was he to do ? if he wished to live
Sejanus was (the man) to oe asked. See TAG., Ann., in. 13. Erat Quinc-
tius, si egdergs, placabilis, L., xxxvi. 32, 5 ; Quinctius was, if you
yielded to him, (sure to be) placable. (Est si cedas.) 81 luxuriae tem-
peraret, avaritiam non timgrgs, TAC., H., n. 62 ; if he were to control
his love of pleasure, you should not have feared avarice. (SI temperet,
non timeas.) Cur igitur et Camillus doleret, si haec . . . gventura putaret 1
et ego doleam si. . .putem? C., Tusc., I. 37, 90. (Present: doleat si putet.)
REMARKS. — i. The Ideal is not controlled by impossibility or im-
probability, and the lively fancy of the Eoman often employs the Ideal
where we should expect the Unreal. (Comp. 256, N. 2.) This is more
common in early Latin.
Tii si Me sis, aliter sentias, TER., And., 310; if you were I (put your-
self in my place), you would think differently. Haec si tgcum patria
loquatur, nonne impetrare debeatl C., Cat., I. 8, 19; if your country
should (were to) speak thus with you, ought she not to get (what she
wants) ? So C., Fin., iv. 22, 61.
2. Sometimes the conception shifts in the course of a long sentence :
SI reviviscant et tgcum loquantur — quid talibus viris responderes 1 C.,
Fin., iv. 22, 61: if they should come to life again, and speak with you
— what answer would you make to such men ?
3. When non possum is followed by nisi (si n5n), the Protasis has
the Ideal of the Past, after the past tense, and may have the ideal
of the Present after a primary tense.
Neque munitiones Caesaris prohibere poterat, nisi proelio decertare vellet,
CAES., B.C., in. 44. See MADVIG on C., Fin., in. 21, 70.
4. In comparing Ideal and Unreal Conditionals, exclude future verbs
such as posse, velle, etc. The future sense of such Unreal Conditionals
comes from the auxiliary.
5. In Oratio Obliqua the difference between Ideal and Logical Future
is necessarily effaced, so far as the mood is concerned. (656.)
III. UNREAL CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
597. The Unreal Conditional sentence is used of that
which is Unfulfilled or Impossible, and is expressed by the
Imperfect Subjunctive for continued action — generally, in
opposition to the Present ; and by the Pluperfect Subjunc-
tive— uniformly in opposition to the Past.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 385
The notion of Impossibility comes from the irreversible character of
the Past Tense. Compare the Periphrastic Conjug. Perfect and Im-
perfect. Any action that, is decided is considered Past (compare C.,
Off., n. 21, 75). (See 277, 3, N.)
PROTASIS. APODOSIS.
SI id crSderSs, errargs,
If you believed (were believing) that, [you
do not,] you would be going wrong.
Si id crSdidissSs, erxavissSs,
If you had believed that, [you did not,] you would have gone wrong.
Sapientia non expetergtur, si nihil efficeret, C., Fin., i. 13, 43 ; wisdom
would not be sought after, if it did no practical good. Caederem tS, nisi
Irascerer, SEN., Ira, i. 15, 3; I should flog you, if I were not getting angry.
Si ibi t6 esse sclssem, ad t5 ipse venissem, C., Fin., i. 8 ; if I had known
you were there, I should have come to you myself. Hectora quis nosset,
felix si TrSia fuisset ? Ov., Tr., IT. 3, 75 ; who would know (of) Hector, if
Troy had been happy ? Nisi ante Roma profectus esses, nunc earn certs
relinquerSs, C., Fam., vn. n, 1; if you had not departed from Rome be-
fore, you would certainly leave it now. Ego nisi peperissem, Roma n5n
oppugnaretur ; nisi filium haberem, libera in llbera patria mortua essem,
L. , n. 40, 8 ; had I not become a mother, Rome would not be besieged ;
had I not a son, I should have died a free woman in a free land.
REMARKS. — i. The Impf. Subjv. is sometimes used in opposition to
continuance from a point iu the Past into the Present. This is neces-
sarily the case when the Protasis is in the Impf., and the Apodosis in
the Plupf., except when the Impf. denotes opposition to a general
statement, which holds good both for Past and for Present :
Non tarn facile opes Carthaginis tantae concidissent, nisi Sicilia classibus
nostrls pateret, Cf. C., Verr., n. i, 3 ; the great resources of Carthage (Car-
thage with her great resources) would not have fallen so readily, if Sicily
had not been (as it still continues to be) open to our fleets. SI pudorem
haberSs, ultimam mini pensionem remlsissSs, SEN., E.M., 29, 10 ; if you
had (= you had not, as you have not) any delicacy, you would have let
me off from the last payment, Memoriam ipsam cum voce perdidissgmus,
si tarn in nostra potestate esset obllvlscl quam tacSre, TAG., Agr., 2, 4 ;
we should have lost memory itself, together with utterance, if it were as
much in our power to forget as to keep silent.
The Impf. in both members, referring to the Past, always admits ot
another explanation than that of the Unreal ; thus we have a case
of Representation (654, N.) in
Protogenes si lalysum ilium suum caeno oblitum vidSret, magnum, credo,
acciperet dolor em, C., Alt., n. 21, 4; if Protogenes could see that famous
lalysus of his besmeared with mud, he would feel a mighty pang. See
PL., Aul, 742.
25
386 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
2. In Unreal Conditions, after a negative Protasis, the Apodosis is
sometimes expressed by the Impf. Indie., when the action is represented
as interrupted (233); by the Plupf. and Hist. Pf., when the conclusion
is confidently anticipated (254, K. 3).
Labebar longius, nisi mg retinuissem, C., Leg., i. 19, 52 (254, R. 3).
This usage after a positive is cited first in the post-Augustan writers.
Cases like C., Verr., v. 42, 129; L., xxii. 28, 13, do not belong here.
Omnlno supervacua erat doctrina, si natura sufficeret, QUINT. , IT. 8, 8
(254, R. 3). Peractum erat bellum, si Pompeium Brundisil opprimere
potuisset, FLOR., n. 13, 19 ; the war was (had been) finished, if he had
been able to crush Pompey at Brundusium.
The Impf. Indie, is sometimes found in the Protasis :
Ipsanx tibl epistolam misissem, nisi (v.l., sed) tarn subito fratris puer profi-
ciscebatur, C., Alt., vin. I, 2; I should have sent you the letter itself, if
my brother's servant was not starting so suddenly.
3. (a) The Indicative is the regular construction in the Apodosis
with verbs which signify Possibility or Power, Obligation or Necessity
— so with the active and passive Periphrastic — vix, paene, scarcely,
hardly, and the like. In many cases it is difficult to distinguish this
usage from that of the Ideal (596, 2).
Consul esse qui potui, nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem 1 C., Rep., i. 6,
10 ; how could I have been consul, if I had not kept that course of life ?
Antoni gladios potuit contemnere, si sic omnia dixisset, Juv.,x. 123 ; he
might have despised Antony's swords, if he had thus said all (that he
did say). Emendaturus, si licuisset, eram, Ov., Tr., I. 7, 40 ; I should
have removed the faults, if I had been free (to do it). Pens iter paene
hostibus dedit (paene dedit = dabat = daturas erat), ni Onus vir fuisset, L.,
ii. 10, 2; the bridge well nigh gave a passage to the enemy, had it not
been for one man.
(b) With the Indie, the Possibility and the rest are stated absolutely ;
when the Subjv. is used the Possibility and the rest are conditioned as
in any other Unreal sentence.
, Compare quid facere potuissem, nisi turn consul fuissem, with consul esse
qui potui, nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem, C., Rep., i. 6, 10. Qui sifuisset
meliore fortuna, fortasse austerior et gravior esse potuisset, C., Pis., 29, 71.
4. In Oratio Obliqua the Protasis is unchanged ; the Apodosis is
formed by the Periphrastic Pr. and Pf. Inf. (149), for the Active, futu-
rum (fore) ut, futurum fuisse ut for passive and Supineless verbs.
A. Dico (dixl), te, si id crederes, erraturum esse.
B. Dico (dixi), te, si id cr6didiss6s, erraturum fuisse.
A. Dico i dixi), si id crederes, fore ut deciperSris.
B. Dico (dixi), si id credidisses, futurum fuisse ut decipereris.
A is very rare ; A, theoretical. For the long form, B, the simple
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 387
Perfect Infinitive is found. Examples, see 659, K. In B, fuisse is
omitted occasionally in later Latin ; TAC., Ann., i. 33, etc.
5. (a) When the Apodosis of an Unreal Conditional is mad,e to de-
pend on a sentence which requires the Subjv., the Plupf. is turned
into the Periphrastic Pf. Subjv. ; the Impf. form is unchanged.
N5n dubito, ] quln, si id crgderSs, errares,
/ do not doubt, that, if you believed that, you would be going wrong.
Non dubitabam, j quln, si id credidisses, erraturus fueris,
I did not doubt, J that, if you had believed that, you would have gone wrong.
Honestum tale est ut, vel si Ignorarent id homings, esset laudabile, Cf.
C., Fin., ii. 15, 49; virtue is a thing to deserve praise, even if men did
not know it. Ea res tantum tumultum ac fugam praebuit ut nisi castra
Punica extra urbem fuissent, effusura se omnis pavida multitude fuerit, L.,
xxvi. 10, 1 ; that matter caused so much tumult and flight (= so wild a
panic), that had not the Punic camp been outside the city the whole,
frightened multitude, would have poured forth. Nee dubium erat quln,
si tarn pauci simul oblre omnia possent, terga daturi hostes fuerint, L., iv.
38, 5 ; there was no doubt that, if it had been possible for so small a
number to manage everything at the same time, the enemy would have
turned their backs. Die quidnam facturus fueris, si e5 tempore censor
fuissSs 1 L., ix. 33, 7 ; tell (me) what you would have done, if you had
been censor at that time f See C., Pis., 7, 14.
(b) The Periphrastic Plupf. Subjv. occurs rarely, and then only in
the Dependent Interrogative. The only examples cited are from LIVY.
Sublbat cogitatio animum, quonam modo tolerabilis futura Etruria fuisset
si quid in Samnio adversi evenisset; L., x. 45, 3.
(c) Potui (254, R. i) commonly becomes potuerim, and ful with the
Periphrastic passive in -dus becomes fuerim, after all tenses.
Haud dubium fuit quln, nisi ea mora intervenisset, castra eo die Punica
capl potuerint, L., xxiv. 42, 3; there was no doubt that, had not that de-
lay interfered, the Punic camp could have been taken on that day. Quae
(res) sua sponte nefaria est ut etiamsl lex non esset, magnopere vltanda
fuerit, C., Verr., i. 42, 108.
(d) The passive Conditional is unchanged :
Id ille si repudiasset, dubitatis quln el vis esset allata? C.,Sest.,2g,
62 ; if he had rejected that, do you doubt that force would have been
brought (to bear) on him ?
The active form is rarely unchanged (L., ir. 33, 9). In the absence
of the Periphrastic tense the Inf. with potuerim is often a sufficient
substitute; see L., xxxn. 28, 6.
NOTE. — In PLAUTUS and TERENCE, absque with the Abl. and esset (foret) ia
found a few times instead of nisi (si non) with Nom., and esset (fuisset) in the sense
if it were not (had not been) for.
Nam absque te esset, hodie numquam ad solem occasum viverem, PL.,
Men., 1022. Cf. Liv., n. 10, 2 (R. 3, above).
388 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
INCOMPLETE CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
598. Omission of the Conditional Sign. — Occasionally the
members of a Conditional sentence are put side by side with-
out a Conditional sign.
An ille mihf (351) liber, cul mulier imperat 7 poscit, dandum est ; vocat,
veniendum est ; eicit, abeundum; minatur, extime'scendum, C., Parad., 5, 2;
or is he free (tell) me, to whom a woman gives orders ? she asks, he must
give ; she calls, he must come ; she turns out (of door), he must go ; she
threatens, he must be frightened. Unum cognorfs, omnis noris, TER.,
Ph., 265; you know one, you know ctll. DedissSs hulc animo par corpus,
fecisset quod optabat, PLIN., Ep., i. 12, 8; had you given him a body
that was a match, for his spirit, he ivould have accomplished what he
desired.
599. Omission of the Verb of the Protasis. — When the
verb of the Protasis is omitted, either the precise form or the
general idea of the verb is to be supplied from the Apodosis.
SI quisquam (= si quisquam fuit), Cato sapiens fait, Cf. C., LaeL, 2, 9;
if any one ^cas wise, Cato was. Educ tecum omnes tu5s ; si minus, quam
plurimos, C., Cat., i. 5, 10 (592, R.).
600. Total Omission of the Protasis. — i. The Protasis is
often contained in a participle or involved in the context ;
for examples see 593, 2 and 3.
2. The Potential Subjunctive is sometimes mechanically
explained by the omission of an indefinite Protasis (257, N. 2).
Nimio plus quam velim [Volscorum] ingenia sunt mobilia, L., n. 37, 4;
the dispositions of the Volscians are (too) much more unstable than I
should like. Tuam mihi darl vellem eloquentiara. C., N.D., u. 59, 147; I
could wish to have your eloquence given me. Tarn f61ix essgs quam fb"r-
mosissima vellem, Ov., Am., i. 8, 27 (302). (TItinam esses !)
601. Omission and Involution of the Apodosis. — The
Apodosis is omitted in Wishes (261), and implied after verbs
and phrases denoting Trial (460, 2). It is often involved in
Oratio Obllqua, and sometimes consists in the general notion
of Result, Ascertainment, <jr the like.
Si verum excutias, faciSs n5n uxor amatur, Juv., vi. 143; if you were to
get out the truth (you would find thaty^ is the face, not the itrife, that
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 389
is loved. (lugurtha) timgbat iram (— ng irasceretur) senatus, nl paruisset
legatis, S., lug., 25, 7 ; lugurtha was afraid of the anger of the senate
(that the senate would get angry) in case he did not (should not have)
obey(ed) the legates.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES OF COMPARISON.
602. The Apodosis is omitted in comparisons with ut si,
velut si, ac si, quam si (rare), tamquam si, quasi, or simply
velut and tamquam, as if.
The verb is to be supplied from the Protasis, as is common
in correlative sentences. The Mood is the Subjunctive.
The tenses follow the rule of sequence, rather than the
ordinary use of the conditional. In English, the translation
implies the unreality of the comparison.
Noll timere quasi [ - quam tiineas si] assem elephants des, QUINT., VI.
3, 59; don't be afraid, as if you were giving a penny to an elephant.
Parvi prlmo ortu sic iacent tamquam [= iaceant si] oranlno sine ammo sint,
C., Fin., v. 15, 42 ; babies, ivhen first born, lie (there), as if they had no
mind at all. Hie est obstandum, mllites, velut si ante Eomana moenia
pugnSmus, L., xxi. 41, 15; here (is where) we must oppose them, soldiers,
as if we were fighting before the walls of Rome (velut obstSmus, si pu-
gnemus, as we ^vould oppose them, if we were to fight). MS iuvat, velut
ipse in parte laboris ac periculi fuerim, ad finem belli Punici pervenisse, L.,
xxxi. i ; I am delighted to have reached the end of the Punic war, as if
I had shared in the toil and danger (of it). Tantus patrSs metus c5pit
velut si iam ad portas hostis esset, L., xxi. 16, 2 ; a great fear took hold
of the senators, as if the enemy were already at their gates. Deleta (est)
Ausonum gens perinde ac si interactive bello certasset, L., ix. 25, 9; the
Ausonian race was blotted out, just as if it had engaged in an interne-
cine war (war to the knife).
REMAHKS. — i. Occasionally the sequence is violated out of regard to
the Conditional:
Massilieuses in eo honore audimus apud | Romanes | esse ac si medium
umbilicum Graeciae incolerent, L., xxxvn. 54, 21; we hear that the people
of Marseilles are in as high honour with the Romans as if they inhabited
the mid-navel (= the heart) of Greece. Eius negotium sic velim suscipias,
ut si esset res mea, C., Fam., n. 14, 1 ; I wish you would undertake his
business just as if it were my affair.
2. The principal clause often contains correlatives, as : ita, sic,
perinde, proinde, similiter, n5n (baud) secus, etc.
NOTES.— 1. Tamquam and quasi are also used in direct comparison with the Indie-
390 CONCESSIVE SENTENCES.
ativc. Here the verbs with both clauses are apt to be the same, in which case the verb
with quasi or tamquam is usually omitted in model prose.
Quasi poma ex arboribus, cruda si sunt, vix gvelluntur, sic vitam adule-
scentibus vis aufert, C., Cat.M., 19, 71.
2. Quasi is used to soften or apologise for a single word (= ut ita dicam).
Mors est quaedam quasi migratio commutatioque vltae, Cf. C., Tusc., 1. 12,
27 ; death is as it were a shifting of life's quarters.
3. As in the ordinary Conditional sentence, so in the Comparative sentence, the Pro-
tasis may be expressed by a participle :
Galll laeti ut explorata victoria ad castra Romanorum pergunt, Cf. CAES.,
B. G., m. 18, 8 ; the Gauls in their joy, as if (then-) victory had been fully ascertained,
proceeded to the camp of the Romans. Antiochus securus de bello Romano erat
tamquam non transiturls in Asiam Romanis, L., xxxvi. 41, 1 ; Antiochus was as
unconcerned about the war with Borne as if the Romans did not intend to cross over
into Asia Minor.
4. In CELSUS, QUINTILIAN, JUVENAL, FLINT MIN., and especially in TACITUS
and SUETONIUS, we find tamquam used almost like quod (541), to indicate an as-
sumed reason, in imitation of the similar Greek use of «is with the participle, and
occasionally where we might have expected the Ace. and Infinitive.
Fridem invisus tamquam plus quain civilia agitaret, TAG., Ann., 1. 12, 6 ;
long misliked as (in Tiberius' judgment) plotting high treason. Suspectus tamquam
ipse suSs incenderit aedgs, Juv., m. 222 ; suspected of having (as if he had) set
his own house on fire. Vulgl opinio est tamquam ( cometes > mutationem regni
portendat, TAC. Ann., xiv. 22, 1 ; it is the popular belief that a comet portends a
change in the kingdom.
Other particles, quasi, sicut, and ut, occur much more rarely and are cited mainly
from TACITUS (quasi only in the Annals). Compare SUET., Tit., 5.
5. Ut SI is rare in early Latin, not being found at all in PLAUTUS. It is found but
once in LIVT, but frequently in CICERO and later Latin. Velut Si is found first in
CAESAR. Velut for velut Si is found first in LIVY. Ac si is equivalent to quasi only
in late Latin.
CONCESSIVE SENTENCES.
603. Concessive Sentences are introduced by :
1. The Conditional particles, etsi, etiamsl, tametsi (tamen-
etsi).
2. The generic relative, quamquam.
3. The compounds, quamvis, quantumvis.
4. The verb licet.
5. The Final particles, ut (ne).
6. Cum (quom).
These all answer generally to the notion although.
NOTE.— Etsi (et + si), even if; etiamsl, even, now if ; tametsi, yet even if ;
quamquam (quam + quam), to what extent soever ; quamvis, to what extent you
choose ; quantumvis, to what amount you choose ; licet, it is left free (perhaps in-
trans. of linquo, I leave).
604. Etsi, etiamsi, and tametsi, take the Indicative or Sub-
junctive, according to the general principles which regulate
CONCESSIVE SENTENCES. 39!
the use of si, if, The Indicative is more common, espe-
cially with etsi.
De futuris rebus etsi semper difficile est dicere, tamen interdum con-
iectura possls acce"dere, C., Fam., vi. 4, 1; although it is always difficult
to tell about the future, nevertheless you can sometimes come near it by
guessing. [Hamilcar] etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen pad servi-
undum putavit, NEP., xxii. i, 3 ; although Hamilcar was on fire with the
desire of war, nevertheless he thought that he ought to subserve (to work
for) peace. Inops ille etiamsi referre gratiam n5n potest, habere certs
potest, C., Off., ii. 20, 69; the needy man (spoken of), if he cannot return
a favour, can at least fed it. Me ve"ra pro gratis loqui, etsi meum inge-
nium non mongret, necessitas cogit, L., in. 68, 9; even if my disposition
did not bid me, necessity compels me to speak what is true instead of
what is palatable.
REMARKS. — i. SI itself is often concessive (591, 2), and the addition
of et, etiam, and tamen serves merely to fix the idea.
2. Etiamsi is used ot'tener with the Subjv. than with the Indie.,
and seems to be found only in conditional sentences. On the other
hand, etsi is also used like quamquam (605, R. 2), in the sense "and
yet ; " virtutem si unam amiseris — etsi amitti non potest virtus, C. ,
Tusc., ii. 14, 82 ; so too, but rarely, tametsi. Etsi is a favorite word
with CICERO, but does not occur in QUINTILIAN nor in SALLUST, the lat-
ter of whom prefers tametsi. Tametsi is not found in the Augustan '
poets nor in TACITUS, and belongs especially to familiar speech.
3. Tamen is often correlative even with tametsi.
605. ftuamquam, to ivliat extent soever., falls under the head
of generic relatives (254, E. 4), and, in the best authors, is
construed with the Indicative.
Medici quamquam intellegunt saepe, tamen numquam aegris dlcunt, illo
morbo eos esse morituros, C., Div., n. 25, 54; although physicians often
know, nevertheless they never tell their patients that they will die of
that (particular) disease.
REMARKS. — i. The Potential Subjv. (257, N. 3) is sometimes found
with quamquam : Quamquam exercitum qui in Volscis erat mallet, nihil
recusavit, L., vi. 9, 6; although he might well have preferred the army
which was in the Volscian country, nevertheless he made no objection.
So especially with the Ideal Second Person.
2. Quamquam is often used like etsi, but more frequently, at the
beginning of sentences, in the same way as the English, and yet,
although, hoivever, in order to limit the whole preceding sentence.
3. The Indie., with etsi and quamquam, is, of course, liable to attrac-
tion into the Subjv. in Oratio Obliqua (506).
392 CONCESSIVE SENTENCES.
NOTE. — The Subjv. with quamquam (not due to attraction) is first cited from CICERO
(perhaps Tusc., v. 30, 85), NEPOS (xxv. 13, 6), after which, following the development
in all generic sentences in Latin, it becomes more and more common ; thus, in post-
Augustan Latin, JUVENAL uses it exclusively, and PLINY MIN. and TACITUS regularly.
606. ftuamvis follows the analogy of volo, / will, with
which it is compounded, and takes the Subjunctive (usually
the principal tenses).
Quantumvis and quamlibet (as conjunctions) belong to
poetry and silver prose.
Quamvls sint sub aqua, sub aqua maledlcere temptant, Ov., M., vi. 376;
although they be under the water, under the water they try to revile.
Quamvls ille niger, quamvis tu candidus esses, V., EC., n. 16; although he
was black, although you were fair. [Vitia mentis], quamvis exigua sint,
in maius excSdunt, SEN., E.M., 85, 12 ; mental ailments (= passions),
no matter how slight they be, go on increasing. Quamvis sis molestus
numquam tS esse confitSbor malum, C., Tusc., u. 25, 61 ; although you be
troublesome, I shall never confess that you are evil.
NOTES. — 1. The Indie, with quamvis is cited in prose first from C., Rab.Post., z,
4 ; NEP., 1. 2, 3 (except in fragments of VABBO and VATINIUS) ; in poetry it appears
first in LUCRETIUS. Then it grows, so that in the post- Augustan period it is used just
like quamquam with the Indie., though the Subjv. is also common :
Quamvis ingenio non valet, arte valet, Ov., Am., 1. 15, 14 ; although he does not
(ell by genius, fie does tell by art.
2. The verb of quamvis is sometimes inflected : Quam volet Epicurus iocBtur,
tamen numquam ui6 movebit, C., N.D., 11. 17, 46.
607. Licet retains its verbal nature, and, according to the
Sequence of Tenses, takes only the Present and Perfect Sub-
junctive :
Licet irrideat si qui vult, C., Parad., i. i, 8; let any one laugh who will.
Ardeat ipsa licet, tormentis gaudet amantis, Juv., vi. 209; though she her-
self is aglow, she rejoices in the tortures of her lover. Sim licet extrgmum,
sicut sum, missus in orbem, Ov., Tr., iv. 9, 9 ; although I be sent, as 1
have been, to the end of the world.
NOTES.— 1. Exceptions are extremely rare : Juv., xm. 56.
2. Quamvis is sometimes combined with licet, as : quamvis licet Insectemur
istBs— metuo n6 s61i pbilosopni sint, C., Tusc., iv. 24,53.
3. Occasionally licet is inflected; e. g., H., Epod., 15, 19 ; S., n. i, 59. From the
time of APULEIUS licet is construed with the Indicative.
608. Ut and ne are also used concessively for the sake of
argument ; this is common in CICERO, who often attaches to
it sane ; the basis of this is the Imperative Subjunctive.
Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas, Ov., Pont., m. 4, 79 ;
RELATIVE SENTENCES. 393
granted that strength be lacking, nevertheless you must praise (my)
good ivill. N6 sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, C., Tusc., n.
5, 14 ; granted that pain be not the chief evil, an evil it certainly is.
REMARKS. — i. Ut n6n can be used on the principle of the Specific
Negative: Hie dies ultimus est; ut non sit, prope ab ultimo est, SEN.,
E. M. , 15, 12 ; this is your last day ; granted that it be not, it is near the
last.
2. Examples with past tenses are rare: C., Mil., 17, 46; L., xxxvm.
46, 3, etc.
3. On ita— ut, see 262 ; on ut — ita, see 482, 4.
609. Concessive Sentence represented by a Participle or
Predicative Attribute. — The Concessive sentence may be
represented by a Participle or Predicative Attribute.
[Risus] interdum ita repente grumpit, ut eum cupientgs tengre nequea-
mus, Cf. C., Or., n. 58, 235; laughter between whiles (occasionally) breaks
out so suddenly that we cannot keep it down, although we desire to do
so. Multorum tS ocull et aur6s nQn sentientem custodient, C., Gat., 1.2,6;
(of) many (the) eyes and ears will keep guard over you, though you per-
ceive it not (WITHOUT your perceiving if). Quis Aristldem non mortunm
diligit ? C., Fin., v. 22, 62; who does not love Aristides, (though) dead ?
NOTES. — 1. Quamquam, quamvls, and etsi are often combined with the parti-
ciple. This, however, is rare in classical Latin, but becomes more common later.
(Caesar), quamquam obsidione Massiliae retardante, brevi tamen omnia
subSgit, SUET., lul., 34.
2. With adjectives and adverbs this is much more common, so especially with
quamvls, which is used with a positive as a circumlocution for the superlative. With
the superlative quamvls is rare.
Etsi non iniquum, certe" triste senatus consultum, L., xxv. 6, 2. Cum omnia
per populum geruntur, quamvls iustum atque moderatum tamen ipsa aequa-
bilitas est inlqua, C., Hep., i. 27, 43.
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
610. The Latin language uses the relative construction far
more than the English : so in the beginning of sentences,
and in combination with Conjunctions and other Kelatives.
REMARKS. — i. The awkwardness, or impossibility, of a literal trans-
lation may generally be relieved by the substitution of a demonstra-
tive with an appropriate conjunction, or the employment of an abstract
noun :
Quae cum ita sint, now since these things are so (Ciceronian formula).
Futura modo exspectant ; quae quia certa esse non possunt, couficiuntur
et angore et metu, C., Fin., i. 18, 60; they only look forward to the
future ; and because that cannot be certain, they wear themselves out
394 RELATIVE SENTENCES.
with distress and fear. [Epicurus] non satis polltus ils artibus quas qui
tenent, eruditi appellantur, C:, Fin., i. 7, 26; Epicurus is not sufficiently
polished by those accomplishments, from the possession of which people
are called cultivated.
2. Notice especially quod in combination with si and its compounds
ubi, quia, quoniam, ut (poetic and post-class.), utinam, n6, utinam n6, qui
(rare), in which quod means and as for that, and is sometimes trans-
lated by and, but, therefore, whereas, sometimes not at all.
Quod nl fuissem incogitans ita eum exspectarem ut par fait, TEB., Ph.,
155 ; whereas, had I not been "heedless, 1 should be awaiting him, in
proper mood.
NOTES. — 1. The use of the Relative to connect two independent clauses instead of a
demonstrative, is very rare hi PLAUTUS, more common in TERENCE, but fully devel
oped only in the classical period.
2. The Relative is the fertile source of many of the introductory particles of the com-
pound sentence (quom, quia, quoniam, compounds of quam, ut, ubi, etc.), and is
therefore treated last on account of the multiplicity of its uses.
611. Kelative sentences are introduced by the Eelative
pronouns in all their forms : adjective, substantive, and
adverbial. (See Tables 109 foil.)
REMARKS. — i. The Relative adverbs of Place, and their correlatives,
may be used instead of a preposition with a Relative. TTnde, whence, is
frequently used of persons, but the others rarely ; occasional examples
are cited for ubi and qu5, the others less frequently : ibi = in e5, etc.;
ubi = in qu5, etc.; inde = ex eo, etc.; unde =«x qu5, etc.; eo = in eum,
etc.; qu5 = in quern, etc.
Potest fieri ut is, unde tS audisse dicis, iratus dixerit, C., Or., n. 70, 285;
it may be that Tie, from whom you say you heard (it), said it in anger.
Qu5 (= quibus) lubeat nubant, dum d5s nS fiat comes, PL., Aul., 491 (573).
z. The Relative is not to be confounded with the Dependent Inter-
rogative sentence (469, R. 2).
Quae probat populus ego nescio, SEN., E.M., 29, 10; the things that the
people approves, I do not know (quid probet, what it is the people ap-
proves}. Et quid ego t5 velim, et tu. quod quaeris, sci6s, TER., And., 536;
you shall know both what (it is) I want of you, and what (the thing
which) you are asking (= the answer to your qwstion).
612. Position of Relatives. — The Relative and Eelative
forms are put at the beginning of sentences and clauses.
The preposition, however, generally, though not invariably,
precedes its Relative (413).
613. Antecedent. — The word to which the Relative refers
RELATIVE SENTENCES. 395
is called the Antecedent, because it precedes in thought even
when it does not in expression.
REMARK. — The close connection between Relative and Antecedent
is shown by the frequent use of one preposition in common (414, it. i).
CONCORD.
614. The Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender,
Number, and Person.
Is minimo eget mortalis, qul minimum cupit, SYRUS, 286 (Fr.) (<30H).
Tlxor contenta est quae bona est uno viro, PL., Merc., 812 ; a wife who is
good is contented with one husband. Malum est consilium quod mutarl
n5n potest, SYRUS, 362 (Fr.); bad is the plan that cannot (let itself) be
changed. Hoc illls narro qul mS non intellegunt, PHAEDR., 3, 128; I tell
this tale for those who understand me not. Ego qul t5 confinno, ipse me"
non possum, C.,Fam., xiv. 4, 5 ; I who reassure you, cannot reassure
myself.
REMARKS. — i. The Relative agrees with the Person of the true Ante-
cedent, even when a predicate intervenes ; exceptions are very rare :
Tu es is, qul (me) summis laudibus ad caelum extulisti, C., Fam., xv. 4,
11 ; you are he that has(t) praised me to the skies.
The Latin rule is the English exception : Acts, xxi. 38; Luke, xvi. 15.
2. When the Relative refers to a sentence, id quod, that which, is
commonly used (parenthetically). So also quae re's, or simple' quod, and,
if reference is made to a single substantive, is qui or some similar form.
SI a vobls id quod non spero deserar, tamen animo non cleficiam, C.,
Rose. Am., 4, 10; if I should be deserted by you (which I do not expect],
nevertheless I should not become faint-hearted. Nee audiendus [Theo-
phrastl] auditor, Strato", is qul physicus appellate, C., N.D., I. 13, 35.
3. The gender and number of the Relative may be determined :
(a) By the sense, and not by the form ; that is, a collective noun may
be followed by a Plural Relative, a neuter numeral by a masculine Rela-
tive, a possessive pronoun by a Relative in the person indicated by the
possessive, etc.
Caesa sunt ad sex mllia qul Pydnam perfugerant, L., XLIV. 42, 7 ; there
ivere slain up to six thousand who had fled to Pydna. Equitatum omnem
praemittit, qul videant, CAES., B.G.,\.i<-,;he sent all the cavalry ahead,
who should see (that they might see, to see).
(b) By the predicate or the apposition, and not by the antecedent ;
so especially when the Relative is combined with the copula or with a
copulative verb.
ThSbae, quod Boeotiae caput est, L., XLII. 44, 3; Thebes, which is the
capital of Boeotia. Flumen Scaldis, quod influit in Mosam, CAES., B.G.,
396 RELATIVE SENTENCES.
vi. 33, 3 ; the river Scheldt, which empties into the Maas. lusta gloria,
qui est fructus virtutis, ('., Pis., 24, 57 ; real glory, which is the fruit:
of virtue.
Exceptions are not unfrequent, especially when the predicative sub-
stantive in the Relative clause is a foreign word or a proper name.
Stellae quas Graecl cometas vocant, C., N.D., n. 5, 14; the stars which
the Greeks call comets. Est genus quoddam hominum quod Helotae voca-
tur, NEP., iv. 3, 6 ; there is a certain class of men called Helots.
4. The pronominal apposition may be taken up into the Relative and
disappear :
Testarum sufiragils quod illi ostracismum vocant, NEP., v. 3, 1; by pot-
sherd votes— (a, thing) which they call " ostracism."
5. When the Relative refers to the combined antecedents of different
gender, the strongest gender is preferred, according to 282 :
Grandes natu matres et parvi liberi, quorum utrumque aetas miseri-
cordiam vestram requirit, C., Verr., \. 49, 129; aged matrons and infant
children, whose age on either hand demands your compassion. Otium
ateque divitiae, quae prlma mortales putant, S., C., 36, 4 ; leisure and
money, which mortals reckon as the prime things.
Or, the nearest gender may be preferred :
Eae fruges atque fructus quos terra gignit, C., N.D., n. 14, 37 ; those
fruits of field and tree which earth bears.
6. Combined Persons follow the rule, 287.
NOTE.— A noteworthy peculiarity is found in early Latin, where a generic Relative
sentence with qui is made the subject of an abstract substantive with est, and repre-
sented by a demonstrative in agreement with that substantive.
Istaec virtus est, quandS usust, qui malum fert fortiter, PL., Asin., 323;
that's manhood who (if one) bears evil bravely, when there's need.
The parallel Greek construction suggests Greek influence.
615. Repetition of the Antecedent. — The Antecedent of
the Relative is not seldom repeated in the Eelative clause,
with the Eelative as its attributive.
(Caesar) intellexit diem Instare, quo die frumentum militibus nietlri oporte-
ret, CAES., B.G., i. 16, 5 ; Caesar saw that the day was at hand, on
ivhich day it behooved to measure corn (corn was to be measured out)
to the soldiers.
NOTE. — This usage belongs to the formal style of government and law. CAESAR is
very fond of it, especially with the word die's. It is occasional in PLAUTUS and TER-
ENCE, and not uncommon in CICERO ; but after CICERO it fades out, being found but
rarely in LIVT, and only here and there later.
616. Incorporation of the Antecedent. — i. The Antece-
dent substantive is often incorporated into the Relative
RELATIVE SENTENCES. 397
clause ; sometimes there is a demonstrative antecedent,
sometimes not.
In quern primum egress! sunt locum Troia vocatur, L., I. I, 3; the first
p/ticf they landed at was called Troy. Quam quisque norit artem, in hac
s6 exerceat, [C.], Tusc., i. 18, 41; what trade each man is master of, (in)
that let him practise (himself), that let him ply.
NOTES.— i. Incorporation, while much less frequent than Repetition, is still not
nnfrequently met with in LIVT ; after EIVY it decays. No examples are cited from
SALLUST with a demonstrative antecedent, and but one from CAESAR. No example
is cited from CAESAR without a demonstrative antecedent.
2. Instead of a principal clause, followed by a consecutive clause, the structure is
sometimes reversed. What would have been the dependent clause becomes the prin-
cipal clause, and an incorporated explanatory Relative takes the place of the demon-
strative. This is confined to certain substantives, and is found a number of times in
CICERO, but rarely elsewhere (SALL., HOB., LIVT, OVID, SEN., TAC., PLINY MIN.).
Qua enim prudentia es, nihil te fugiet (- ea prudentia es, ut nihil te
fugiat), C., Fain., xi. 13, 1. Yells tantummodo ; quae tua virtus (est), expug-
nabis, H., &, i. 9, 54.
2. An appositional substantive, from which a Eelative
clause depends, is regularly incorporated into the Relative
clause.
[Amanus] Syriam a Cilicia dividit, qui mons erat hostium plenus, C.,
Aft., v. 20, 3 ; Syria is divided from Cilicia by Amanus, a mountain
which was full of enemies.
NOTE.— This usage is found first in CICERO. The normal English position is found
first in LIVY, but it becomes more common in later Latin.
Priscus, vir cuius providentiam in r5 publica ante experta clvitas erat,
L., iv. 46, 10.
3. Adjectives, especially superlatives, are sometimes trans-
ferred from the substantive in the principal clause and made
to agree with the Relative in the Relative clause.
| Themistocles 1 rle servls suis quern habuit fidelissimuni ad regem. nusit,
NEP., ii. 4, 3; Themistocles sent the most faithful slave he had to the
king. Nominl credo, qui large" blandust dives pauperl, PL., Aul., 196; 1
trust no rich man who is lavishly Tcind to a poor man.
617. Attraction of the Relative. — The Accusative of the
Relative is occasionally attracted into the Ablative of the
antecedent, rarely into any other case.
Hoc conflrmamus illo augurio quo dlximus, C., Att., x. 8, 7; we confirm
this by the augury which we mentioned.
NOTES.— 1. This attraction takes place chiefly when the verb of the Relative clause
must be supplied from the principal sentence ; that is, with auxiliary verbs like velle,
80l6re, iubere ; and after verbs of Saying aud the like.
398 RELATIVE SENTENCES.
It is rare in early Latin, bnt common from CICERO on.
Quibus poterat saucils ductis secum ad urbem pergit, L., IT. 39, 9 ; hmAng
taken with him all tfie wounded he could, he proceeded to the city.
2. Inverted Attraction. — So-called Inverted Attraction is found only in poetry, and
then usually in the Ace., which may be considered as an object of thought or feeling.
This Ace. stands usually for a Norn., sometimes, but only in Comedy, for the
Gen. Dat. or Abl. A strange usage is the Nom. where the Ace. would be expected.
This may be noriinStlvus pendens, a form of anacoluthon (697), and is found only
in early Latin.
TJrbem quam statuo, vestra est, V., A ., i. 573 ; (as for) the city which lam rear-
ing, (it) is yours. Istum quern quaeris, ego sum, PL., Cure., 419 ; (as fort Unit man.
whotn you are looking for, I am he. Ille qui mandavit eum exturbasti ex
aedibus ? PL., fnn., 137. (" He that hath ears to hear, let him hear.")
618. Correlative Use of the Relative. — The usual Correl-
ative of qui is is, more rarely hie, ille.
Is minimo eget mortalis, qui minimum cupit, SYRUS, 286 (Fr.) (308).
Hie sapiens, de quo loquor, C., Ac., n. 33, 105 (305, 3). Ilia digs veniet,
mea qua lugubria ponam, Ov., Tr., iv. 2, 73 (307, 4).
619. Absorption of the Correlative. — The Correlative, is,
is often absorbed, especially when it would stand in the same
case as the Eelative. This is a kind of Incorporation.
Postume, n5n bene olet, qui bene semper olet, MART., n. 12, 4; Postu-
mus, (he) smells not sweet, who always smells sweet. Quern arma non
fregerant'vitia vlcSrunt, CURT., vi. 2, 1 ; (him) whom arms had not crushed
did vices overcome. Quern di dfligunt adulgscSns moritur, PL., B., 816;
(he) whom the gods love dies young. XerxSs praemium proposuit qui [= el
qui] mvSnisset novam voluptatem, C., Tusc., v. 7, 20; Xerxes offered a
reward to him who should invent a new pleasure. Miseranda vita qui
[= eorum qui] sS metul quam amari malunt, NEP., x. 9, 5; pitiable is the
life of those who would prefer being feared to being loved. Dlscite
sanari per quern [= per eum, per quern] didicistis amare, Ov., Mem. Am.,
43 (401).
Difficult and rare are cases like :
Nunc redeo ad quae (for ad ea quae) mini mandas, C., Aft., v. n, 6.
620. Position of the Correlative clause. — The Relative
clause naturally follows its Correlative, but it often precedes ;
incorporation also is common.
Male se res habet cum quod virtute efficl rlebet id temptatur pecunia, C.,
Off. , n. 6, 22 ; it is a bad state of affairs when what ought to be accom-
plished by worth, is attempted by money. Quod vides accidere puerls h5c
nSbis quoque maiusculis pueris Bvenit, SEN., E.M., 24, 13; what you see
befall children (this) happens to us also, children of a larger growth.
Quam quisque norit artem, in hac se exerceat, [C.], Tusc., i. 18, 41 (616, i).
EELATIVE SENTENCES. 399
The Correlative absorbed :
Quod nSn dedit fortuna, non eripit, SEN., E.M., 59, 18; what fortune
has not given (does not give), she does not take away. Per quas n5s
petitis saepe fugatis opgs, Qv., A.A., in. 132; the means you take to win
us often scare us off.
621. Indefinite Antecedent. — The Indefinite Antecedent is
generally omitted.
Elige cui dicas : tu nrihi sola placSs, Ov., A. A., i. 42; choose same one
to irJtom you may say : You alone please me.
REMARK. — Such sentences are sometimes hardly to be distinguished
from the Interrogative: [Con5n] n5n quaeslvit ubi ipse tuto vlveret, NEP.,
ix. 2, 1 ; Conon did not seek a place to live in safety himself, might be
either Relative or Deliberative (265).
TENSES IN RELATIVE SENTENCES.
622. Future and Future Perfect. — The Future and
Future Perfect are used with greater exactness than in cur-
rent English (242, 244).
Sit liber, dominus qul volet esse meus, MART., n. 32, 8; he must be free
ii'ho wishes (shall wish) to be my master. Qul prior strinxerit ferrum,
6ius victoria erit, Liv. (244, R. 2).
623. Iterative Action. — Relative sentences follow the laws
laid down for Iterative action (566, 567).
I. Contemporaneous action :
Ore traliit quodcumque potest, atque addit acerv5, H., S., I. I, 34; drags
with its mouth whatever it can, and adds to the treasure (Jieap). Qua-
cumque incgdebat agmen, IggatI occurrgbant, L., xxxiv. 16, 6; in whatever
direction the column advanced, ambassadors came to meet them.
II. Prior action :
[Terra] numquam sine usura reddit, quod accSpit, C., Cat.N., 15, 51 ; the
earth never returns without interest what it has received (receives). Quod
n5n dedit fortuna, non gripit, SEN., E.M., 59, 18 (620). Non cgnat quotiSns
n5mo vocavit eum, MART., v. 47, 2; he does not dine as often as (when)
no one has invited (invites) him. Haerebant in memoria quaecumque
audierat et vlderat [Themistocles], C., Ac., u. i, 2 (567). Sequentur tS
quScumque pervSnens vitia, SEN., JS.M., 28, 1; vices will follow you
whithersoever you go. Qul timgre dgsierint, odisse incipient, TAG., Agr.,
32 (567).
REMARK. — On the Subjv. m Iterative Sentences, see 567, N.
4OO RELATIVE SENTENCES.
MOODS IN RELATIVE SENTENCES.
624. The Relative clause, as such — that is, as the represen-
tative of an adjective — takes the Indicative mood.
TJxor quae bona est, PL., Merc., 812 ; a toife who is good (a good icife).
REMARK. — The Relative in this use often serves as a circumlocution
for a substantive, with this difference : that the substantive expresses
a permanent relation ; the Relative clause, a transient relation : il qul
docent = those who teach = the teachers (inasmuch as they are exercis-
ing the functions). On the Relative with Subjv. after an adj. clause,
see 438, R.
625. Indefinite and Generic Relatives. — i. Quicumque,
quisquis, and the like, being essentially Iterative Relatives,
take the Indicative according to the principles of Iterative
action (254, R. 4). So also simple Relatives when similarly
used.
Quacumque incedebat agmen, legati occurrebant, Liv., xxxiv. 16, 6 (62.3).
REMARK. — According to 567, N., the Subjv. is used :
(1) In Oratio Obliqua (Total or Partial) :
Marti Galli quae bells cgperint (Pf. Subjv.) dSvovent (= sg daturas
vovent), Cf. CAES., B. G., vi. 17, 3; the Gauls devote (promise to give) to
Mars whatever they (shall) take in war (6. B., Quae ceperimus, dabimus).
(2) By Attraction of Mood (Complementary Clauses) :
Quis eum diligat quern metuat ? C., Lael., 15, 53 (629).
(3) In the Ideal Second Person :
Bonos segnior fit ubi neglegas, S.-, lug., 31, 28 (566).
(4) By the spread of the Subjv. in post-classical Latin :
Qul unum eius ordinis offendisset omnes adversos habebat, L., xxxm
46, 1 (567).
2. ftui = si quis, if any, has the Indicative when the Con-
dition is Logical.
[Terra] numquam sine usura reddit, quod accepit, C.,Cat.M., 15, 51
(623). (SI quid accepit.) Qul morl didicit, servlre dsdidicit, SEN., E.M.,
26,10(423).
REMARK. — When the Condition is Ideal, the Subjv. is necessary (596).
In post-classical Latin the Subjv. is the rule with all conditionals.
626. Explanatory Relative. — Qui, with the Indicative
(= is enim, for he), often approaches quod, in that.
Habeo senectuti magnain gratiam, quae mini sermOnis aviditatem
RELATIVE SENTENCES. 4<DI
auxit, C., Cat.M., 14, 46; I am very thankful to old age, which (for it,
in that it) has increased me (= in me) the appetite for talk.
REMARK.— Qul with the Subjv. gives a ground, = cum is (586) ; qul
with the Indie., a fact ; and in many passages the causal sense seems to
be inevitable:
Insanit hie quidem, qui ipse male dicit sibl, PL., Men., 309; cracked is
this man, who calls (— for calling) down curses on himself. Erraverim
fortasse qul me" aliquid putavi, PLIN., Ep., i. 23, 2; / may have erred in
thinking myself to be something.
NOTES.— 1. This causal sense is heightened by ut, utpote, as ; quippe, namely.
lit qui is rare in early Latin, CAESAR, and CICERO, and is not found at all in TERENCE
and SALLUST. LIVT, however, is fond of it. The mood is everywhere the Subjunc-
tive. Utpote is found only here and there in Latin, and not at all in TERENCE,
CAESAR, LIVT ; but once in PLAUTUS. The mood is the Subjv. until late Latin.
Quippe qul is the most common of the three, but does not occur in CAESAR. In early
Latin the mood is the Indie, (except PL., Pers., 699) ; also in SALLUST. CICERO uses
the Subjv. ; LIVT uses both moods ; later the Subjv. is the rule until the time of
AruLEitrs.
2. Simple Explanatory qui has the Indie, most commonly in early Latin, and in
general developes on the same line that cum. follows.
627. The Subjunctive is employed in Eelative clauses
when it would be used in a simple sentence.
POTENTIAL: Habeo quae velim, C., Fin., i. 8, 28; I have what I should
like.
OPTATIVE: Quod faustum sit, regem create, L., i. 17, 10; blessing be
on your choice, make ye a king.
REMARKS. — i. Especially to be noted is the Subjv. in restrictive
phrases. Here the Relative often takes quidem, sometimes modo.
The early Latin shows only quod sciam(as if dum aliquid sciam), so far as 1
may be permitted to know anything about it (= quantum scio, as far as 1 know, for
all I know), which is used throughout the language, and quod quidem veniat in
mentem (PL., Ep., 638). CICERO, however, shows a great variety. Quantum sciam
is found first in QUINTILIAN.
Omnium oratorum quos quidem cogn5verim acutissimum iudico SertS-
rium, C., Br., 48, 180 ; of all orators, so far as I know them, I consider Sertorius the
most acute. Nullum ornatum qul modo n5n obscuret subtrahendum puto,
QUINT., v. 14, 33 ; / think no ornament is to be ^vithdra^un, provided that it do not
cause obscurity.
2. Restrictions involving esse, posse, attinet, are regularly in the
Indicative. CICERO and CAESAR, however, show a very few cases of
the Subjv., especially with possls.
Prodidistl et te et illam, quod quidem in t5 fuit, TER.,^!<?., 692; you
have betrayed both her and yourself, so far as in you lay. Ego quod ad
me attinet, indices, vici, C., Verr., II. i. 8, 21 ; /, judges, so far as per-
tains to me, have conquered,
26
4O2 RELATIVE SENTENCES.
628. The Subjunctive is used in Relative clauses which
form a part of the utterance or the view of another than the
narrator, or of the narrator himself when indirectly quoted
(539, R.). So especially in Oratio Obliqua and Final Sen-
tences.
R§ctS Graeci praecipiunt, non temptanda quae effici n5n possint, QUINT.,
iv. 5, 17; right are the Greeks in teaching that those things are not to
be attempted which cannot be accomplished. Apucl Hypanira fluvium
Aristoteles ait, bestiolas quasdam nasci quae unum diem vlvant, C., Tusc.,
i. 39, 94 (650). Virtus facit ut eos dfligamus in quibus ipsa inesse videatur,
C., Off., i. 17, 56; virtue makes us love those in whom she seems to
reside. Postulatur ab hominibus ut ab ils se abstineant maxime vitils, in
quibus alterum reprehenderlnt, C., Verr., in. 2, 4 ; it is demanded of men
that they refrain from those faults most of all as to which they have
blamed another. Senatus censuit uti qulcumque Galliam provinciam
obtingret, Haeduos dsfenderet, CAES., B.G., i. 35; the senate decreed that
whoever obtained Gaul as his province should defend the Haedui.
Paetus (mine's libros quos frater suus rellquisset mihi donavit, C., Aft., n.
i,12; (this is Paetus' statement; otherwise: quos frater 6ius (521) reli-
quit ; compare C., Alt., I. 20, 7). Xerxgs praemium proposuit qui [= el
qui] inv6nisset novam voluptatem, C., Tusc., \. 7, 20 (619).
REMARK. — Even in Oratio Obliqua the Indie, is retained :
(a) In explanations of the narrator :
Nuntiatur Afranio magn5s commeatus qui iter habebant ad Caesarem ad
flumen constitisse, CAES., B.C., i. 51, 1; it is (was) announced to Afra-
nius that large supplies of provisions (which were on their way to
Caesar) had halted at the river.
In the historians this sometimes occurs where the Relative clause is
an integral part of the sentence, especially in the Impf. and Pluperfect;
partly for clearness, partly for liveliness. For shifting Indie, and
Subjv., see L., xxvi. i.
(b) In mere circumlocutions :
Quis neget haec omnia quae vidcmus deorum potestate administrarH
Cf. C., Cat., in. q, 21; ivho would deny that this whole visible world is
managed by the power of the gods ? Providendum est ng quae dlcuntur
ab e5 qui dlcit dissentiant, QUINT., in. 8, 48; we must see to it that the
speech be not out of keeping with the speaker.
629. Relative sentences which depend on Infinitives and
Subjunctives, and form an integral part of the thought, are
put in the Subjunctive (Attraction of Mood).
Pigrl est ingeni! contention esse ils quae sint ab alils inventa, QUINT., x.
RELATIVE SENTENCES. 403
2, 4; it is the mark of a slow genius to be content with what has been found
out by others. Quis aut eum diligat quern metuat aut eum a quo sS metul
putet? G.,Lael., 15, 53; who could love a man whom he fears, or by
whom he deems himself feared ? Nam quod emaspossls iure vocare tuum,
MART., n. 20, 2; for what you buy you may rightly call your own. Ab
alio exspectes alter! quod fSceris, SYRUS, 2 (Pr.) (319). In virtute sunt multi
ascensus, ut is gloria maximg excellat, qui virtute plurimum praestet, C.,
Plane., 25, 60 (552). Si solos eos dlcergs miseros quibus moriendum esset,
neminem eorum qui vlverent exciperes ; moriendum est enim omnibus, C.,
Tusc., i. 5, 9; if you called only those wretched who had (have) to die,
you would except none who lived (live) ; for all have to die.
REMARK. — The Indie, is used :
(a) In mere circumlocutions ; so, often in Consecutive Sentences :
Necesse est facere sumptum qui quaerit lucrum, PL., .As., 218 (535).
Emcitur ab 6rat5re, ut ii qui audiunt ita adficiantur ut orator velit, Cf. C.,
Br., 49, 185; it is brought about by the orator that those who hear him
(— his auditors) are affected as he loishes (them to be}.
(b) Of individual facts :
Et quod vidgs perisse perditum ducas, CAT. , vm. 2 ; and what you see
(definite thing, definite person) is lost for aye, for aye deem lost. (Quod
videas, anybody, anything.)
630. Relative Sentences of Design. — Optative Eelative sen-
tences are put in the Subjunctive of Design, when qui = ut is.
Sunt multi qui gripiunt aliis quod aliis largiantur, C., Off., i. 14, 43;
many are they who snatch from some to lavish on others. [Senex] serit
arborgs, quae alter! saeclo prosint, CAECILIUS (C., Tusc., i. 14, 31) (545).
Semper hab6 Pyladen aliquem qui curet Orestem, Ov., Rem.Am., 589 (545).
[Magnesiam Themistocli Artaxerxes] urbem donarat, quae ei panem
praebgret, NEP., n. 10, 3 (545).
NOTES. — 1. The basis of this construction is the characteristic Subjv., and the con-
ception seems Potential rather than Optative ; but in many cases the characteristic force
is no longer felt.
2. After mittere there are a few cases where the Impf . Indie, is used with much the
Bame force as the Impf. Subjv., but the purpose is merely inferential from the continu-
ance in the tense.
Inmittebantur illi canes, qui invgstigabant omnia, C., Verr., iv. 21, 47.
3. By attraction similar to that with quod (541, N. 3) and quom (585, N. 3), the Kela-
tive is sometimes found with an Inf. and dlceret, where the Subjv. of the verb in the
Inf., or the Indie, with a parenthetical ut dixit, is to be expected.
Litteras quas me sib! mlsisse dlceret • - misisset, <>r mlserat, ut dixit) reci-
tavit, C., PA., ii. 4, 7.
631. Relative Sentences of Tendency. — Potential Relative
sentences are put in the Subjunctive of Tendency, when
qui — ut is.
404 RELATIVE SENTENCES.
The notion is generally that of Character and Adaptation, and we
distinguish three varieties :
1. With a definite antecedent, when the character is
emphasised ; regularly after idoneus, suitable ; aptus, Jit ;
dignus, worthy / indlgnus, unworthy ; after is, talis, eiusmodi,
tarn, tantus, and the like ; after unus and solus.
Est innocentia adfectio tails animl, quae noceat neminl, C. , Tusc. , in. 8,
16 ; harmlessness (innocence) is that state of mind that does harm to no
one (is innocuous to any one). Hie ego sim cuius laniet furiosa capillos,
Ov., A. A., n. 451 ; may I be the man whose hair she tears in her seasons
of frenzy. Solus es, C. Caesar, cuius in victoria ceciderit nein<5. C., Dei.,
12, 34; thou art the only one, Caesar, in whose victory no one has fallen.
Quern mea Calliope laeserit unus egd, Ov., Tr., n. 568; / am the only
one that my Calliope (= my Muse) has hurt. (Academic!) mentem sSlam
cSnsgbant idoneam cul crMeretur, C., Ac., i. 8, 30; the Academics held
that the mind alone loasfit to be believed (trustworthy).
REMARKS. — i. Tit is not unfrequently found instead of qul after the
correlatives.
2. Idoneus, dignus, etc., take also ut, and the Infinitive (552, K. 2).
2. With an indefinite antecedent ; so especially after
negatives of all kinds, and their equivalents, and in com-
binations of multi, quldam, alii, ndnnulli, etc., with est, sunt,
exastit, etc.
Est qul, sunt qul, there is, there are some who ; nem5 est qul, there is
none to ; nihil est quod, there is nothing ; habeo quod, / have to ; reperi-
untur qul, persons are found who (to) . . . ; quis est qul 1 who is
there who (to) . . . . ? est cur, there is reason for, etc. So, also,
fait cum, there was a time when (580, R. i).
Sunt qul discessum animl a corpore putent esse mortem, C., Tusc.ti. 9,
18 ; there are some who (to) think that death is the departure of the soul
from the body. Fuit qul suaderet appellationem mensis August! in Sep-
tembrem transferendam, SUET., Aug., 100 ; there ivas a man who urged
(— to urge) that the name of the month (of) August should be trans-
ferred to September. Multi fuSrunt qul tranquillitatem expetentes a
negotiis publicis s6 removerint, C., Off., i. 20, 69; there have been many
who, in the search for quiet, have withdrawn themselves from public
engagements. Omnino nemg ulllus rei fuit emptor cul defuerit hie vendi-
tor, C. , Ph. , n. 38, 97 (317, i). Post mortem in morte nihil est quod metuam
mall, PL., Capt., 741; after death there is no ill in death for me to
dread. Nee mea qul digitls lumina condat erit, Ov., Her., 10, 120 ; and
there will be no one to close mine eyes with his fingers. Miserrimus est
RELATIVE SENTENCES. 405
qul quom §sse cupit quod edit (172, N.)~non habet, PL., Capt., 463; he is a
poor wretch who, when he wants to eat, has not anything to eat (n5n
habet quid edat would mean does not know what to eat). Quotus est
quisque qul somniis pareat, C., Div., n. 60, 125 ; (how many men in the
world), the fewest men in the world obey dreams.
REMARKS. — i. The Indie, may be used in the statements of definite
facts, and not of general characteristics :
Mult! suut qul eripiant, Multi aunt qul eripiunt,
Tfiere are many to snatch away. Many are they who snatch away.
Of course this happens only after affirmative sentences. The poets
use the Indie, more freely than prose writers :
Sunt-quI (= quldam)quod sentiunt non audent (so MSS.) dicere, C., Off.,
i. 24, 84 ; some dare not say what they think. Sunt-quibus ingrate ti-
mida indulgentia servit, Ov., A. A., n. 435 ; to some trembling indul-
gence plays the slave all thanklessly. Sunt qui (indefinite) non habeant,
est-qul (definite) n5n curat habSre, H., Up., n. 2, 182.
2. When a definite predicate is negatived, the Indie, may stand on
account of the definite statement, the Subj v. on account of the negative :
A. Nib.il bonum est quod non eum qul id possidet meliorem facit ; or,
B. Nihil bonum est quod non eum qui id possideat meliorem faciat.
A. Nothing that does not make its owner better is good.
B. Tftere is nothing good that does not make its owner better.
3. After comparatives with quam as an object clause.
Maiora in clefectione cleliquerant, quam quibus ignosci posset, L., xxvi.
12, 6; (in that revolt) they had been guilty of greater crimes than could
be forgiven (had sinned past forgiveness). Non longins hostSs aberant,
quam qu5 tslum adicl posset, CAES., B. &., n. 21, 3; the enemy were not
more than ajaveliris throw distant.
REMARKS. — i. Classical Latin prefers ut after comparatives.
2. Instead of quam ut, quam is not unfrequently found alone, espe-
cially after potius, but also after amplius, celerius, etc.; in which case the
construction resembles that of antequam.
4. Parallel with a descriptive adjective with which it is
connected by et or sed.
Exierant (duo) adulescentes et Drusi maxime familiares, et in quibus
magnam spem maiorSs colloearent, C., Or., i. 7, 25 ; two young men had
come out (who were) intimates of Drusus and in whom their elders were
putting great hopes.
632. ftuin in Sentences of Character. — After negative
clauses, usually with a demonstrative tarn, ita, etc., qum is
406 RELATIVE SENTENCES.
often used (556) where we might expect qui non, and some-
times where we should expect quae non, or quod non.
Sunt certa vitia quae nem8 est quin effugere cupiat, C., Or., in. n, 41;
there are certain faults which there is no one but (= everybody) desires
to escape. Nil tarn difficile est quin quaerendo investlgari possiet (= possit),
TER., Heaut., 675 (552).
REMARK. — That quin was felt not as qui non, but rather as ut non, is
shown by the fact that the demonstrative may be expressed :
Non cum quoquam anna contuli quin is mini succubuerit, NEP., xvm.
ii, 5; / have never measured swords with any one that he has not (but
he has) succumbed to me.
633. Relative in a Causal Sense. — When qui = cum is, as
he, the Subjunctive is employed. (See 586, R. i.)
The particles ut, utpote, quippe, as, are often used in conjunction
with the Relative ; for their range, see 626, N. 1.
(Caninius) fuit mlrifica vigilautia qui suo toto consulatu somnum non vi-
derit, C., Fam., vn. 30, 1 ; Caninius has shown marvellous watchfulness,
,not to have seen (= taken a wink of) sleep in his whole consulship.
0 fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris !
C., Arch., 10, 24; lucky youth ! to have found a crier (= trumpeter) of
your valor (in) Homer ! Maior gloria in Sclpione, Quinctii recentior ut
qui eo anno triumphasset, L., xxsv. 10, 5; Scipio's glory was greater,
Quinctius1 was fresher, as (was to be expected in) a man ivho (inasmuch
as he) had triumphed in that year.
REMARK. — On the use of the Indie, after quippe, etc., see 626, N. 1.
On the sequence of tenses, see 513, N. 3.
634. Relative in a Concessive or Adversative Sense. — Qui
is sometimes used as equivalent to cum is in a Concessive or
Adversative Sense.
Ego qui leviter Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen cum venissem Athenas
complures ibi digs sum commoratus, C., Or., i. 18, 82; although I had
dabbled but slightly in Greek, nevertheless, having come to Athens, I
stayed there several days.
NOTE. — The Indie, is the rule for this construction in early Latin (580, N. 1).
635. Relative and Infinitive. — The Accusative and Infini-
tive may be used in Oratid Obliqua after a Eelative, when
the Eelative is to be resolved into a Coordinating Con-
junction and the Demonstrative.
(Philosophi censent ) unum quemque nostrum mundi esse parteni, ex quo
illud natura cousequi ut communein utilitatem nostrae anteponamus, C.,
RELATIVE SENTENCES. 407
Fin., in. ig, C>4; philosophers hold that every one of us is a part of the
universe, and that the natural consequence of this is for us to prefer
the common welfare to our own.
NOTES.— 1. This usage is not cited earlier than CICERO, and seems to be found prin-
cipally there, with sporadic examples from other authors.
2. Occasional examples are also found of the Inf. after etsi (LrvY), quamquam
(TAC.), in the sense and yet ; cum interim (LIVY), quia (SEN.), nisi (TAG.), si n5n
(LIVY) ; and after quern admodum, ut (Cic., LIVY, TAG.), in comparative sentences.
636. Combination of Relative Sentences. — Eelative Sen-
tences are combined by means of Copulative Conjunctions
only luhen they are actually coordinate.
When the second Relative would stand in the same case as
the first, it is commonly omitted («).
When it would stand in a different case (b), the Demon-
strative is often substituted (c) ; or, if the case be the Nom-
inative (d) or Accusative (e), the Relative may be omitted
altogether.
(••') Dumnorix qul principal uni obtiuebat ac plebi acceptus erat (CAES., E.G.,
1-3,5),
Dumnorix, who field the chieftaincy, and (who) tvas acceptable to the commons ;
(b) Dumnorix qu! prlncipatum obtiuebat culque plebs favebat,
Dumnorix, who held the chieftaincy, and whom (he commons favoured ;
(c) Dumnorix qul prlncipatum obtinebat eique plebs favebat,
Dumnorix, who held the chieftaincy, and whom the commons favoured ;
(d) Dumnorix quern plebs diligebat et prlncipatum obtinebat,
Dumnorix, whom the commons loved, and (who) held the chieftaincy ;
(e) Dumnorix qul prlncipatum obtinebat et plebs diligebat,
Dumnoi-ix, who held the chieftaincy, and (whom) the commons loved.
Examples : (a) CAES., B. G., iv. 34, 4 ; (b) C., Lad., 23, 87 ; Tusc., i. 30, 72 ; (c) C., Br.,
74, 258 ; Tusc., v. 13, 38 ; (e) C., Off., n. 6, 21 ; L., x. 29, 3 ; (d) 8., lug., 101, 5 ; TKR.,
Ad., 85.
NOTES.— 1. The insertion of a demonstrative is almost confined to early Latin,
LUCRETIUS, and CICEKO. CAESAR and SALLUST have no examples, and LIVY very few.
On the other hand, the use of a relative by zeugma (690) in connection with two or
more verbs governing different cases is found at all periods.
2. (a) The Relative is not combined with adversative or illative conjunctions (but
who, who therefore) except at the beginning of a sentence, when it represents a follow-
ing demonstrative or anticipates it (620).
Qul fortis est, idem fidens est ; qui autem fidens est, is non extimescit
C., Tusc., in. 7, 14 ; he who is brave is confident, but he who is confident is not afraid.
(b) Sed qul, qul tamen, can be used in antithesis to adjectives.
Sophr5n mlmorum quidem scriptor sed quern Plato probavit, QUINT., 1. 10,
17 ; Sophron, a writer of mimes, ''tis true, but (one) that Plato approved.
(c) Qul tamen may be added to explain a foregoing statement.
Causam tibi exposuimus Ephesi, quam tu tamen coram facilius cognosces,
C., Fam., xin. 55, 1.
3. Two or more Relative clauses may be connected with the same antecedent when
the one serves to complete the idea of the principal clause, the other to modify it :
4O8 COMPARATIVE SENTENCES.
Ilia vis quae investigat occulta, quae inventio dicitur, C., Tusc., i. 25, 61 ;
the faculty that tracks out hidden things, which is called (the faculty of) research.
4. The Relative is often repeated by anaphora (682) for stylistic reasons. Compare
C., Tusc., i. 25, 62 ; Plane., 33, 81 ; L., xxni. 14, 3.
637. Relative Sentence represented by a Participle. — The
Kelative sentence is sometimes represented by a Participle,
but generally the Participle expresses a closer connection
than the mere explanatory Eelative.
Onmes aliud agentes, aliud simulantes perfidi (sunt), C., Off., in. 14, 60;
all who are driving at one thing and pretending another are treacherous.
| Pisistratus j Homer i libros confuses antea sic disposuisse dlcitur at nuno
habemus, C., Or., in. 34, 137; Pisistratus is said to have arranged the
books of Homer, which were (whereas they were) in confusion before,
as we have them now.
COMPARATIVE SENTENCES.
638. A peculiar phase of the Relative sentence is the Com-
parative, which is introduced in English by as or than, in
Latin by a great variety of relative forms :
(a) By correlatives ; (b) by atque or ac ; (c) by quam.
639. Moods in Comparative Sentences. — The mood of the
Dependent clause is the Indicative, unless the Subjunctive
is required by the laws of oblique relation, or by the condi-
tional idea (602).
REMARK. — On potius quam with the Subjv., see below, 644, R. 3.
640. The dependent clause often borrows its verb from the
leading clause. Compare 602.
Ignoratio futurorum malorum utilior est quam scientia, C., Div., n. 9,
23 (296). Servi inoribus isdem erant quibus dominus, Cf. C., Verr., in. 25,
62 ; the servants had the same character as the master.
641. When the dependent clause (or standard of compari-
son) borrows its verb from the leading clause, the depend-
ent clause is treated as a part of the leading clause ; and if
the first or leading clause stands in the Accusative with the
Infinitive, the second or dependent clause must have the
Accusative likewise.
Ita sentio Latinam linguam locupletiorem esse quam Graecam, C., Fin.,
1.3,10; it is my opinion that the Latin language is richer than the
COMPARATIVE SENTENCES. 409
Greek. Ego Gaium Caesarem non eadem cle re publics sentlre quae me scio,
C., Pis., 32, 79; / know that Gains Caesar has not the same political
views that I (have).
I. Correlative Comparative Sentences.
642. Correlative Sentences of Comparison are introduced
by Adjective and Adverbial Correlatives :
1. Adjective correlatives :
tot, totidem quot, (so) as many ~|
tantus quantus, (so) as great \
tails qualis, such j
idem qul, the same \
2. Adverbial correlatives :
tarn quani, (so) as much "1
tantopere quantopere, (so) as much
totiSns (6s) quotiens (e"s), as often | 8'
tanuliu quamdiu, as long I
ita, sic fut, uti, slcut, tamquam (rare), ~\
quasi (rare),
item, itideui I quemadmodum,
I quOmodo,
Quot homings, tot sententiae, (as) many men, (so) many minds, TER.,
Ph., 454. Frumentum tantl fuit quantl iste aestimavit, C., Verr., in. 84,
194 ; corn was worth as much as he valued it. Plerique habere amlcum
talem volunt, quales ipsi esse non possuut, C., Lael., 22, 82 ', most people
wish to have a friend of a character such as they themselves cannot
possess. Cimon incidit in eandem invidiam quam pater suus, NEP., v. 3, 1
(310). Nihil est tarn populare quam bonitas, C., Lig., 12, 37; nothing is
so winning as kindness. Sic dS ambitione quomodo d6 arnica queruntur,
SEN., E.M., 22, 10; they complain of ambition as they do of a sweet-
heart. Tamdiu requiSsco quamdiu ad tS scrlbo, C., Att., ix. 4, 1 ; I rest as
long as I am writing to you. Opt5 ut ita cuzque Sveniat, ut dS re publics
quisque mereatur, C., Ph., n. 46, 119; I wish each one's fortune to be
such as he deserves of the state.
3. The Correlative is sometimes omitted.
Hom5, non quam istl sunt, gloriosus, L. , xxxv. 49, 7 ; a man, not (so)
vainglorious as they are. Disces quamdiu vol6s, C., Off., i. i, 2 ; you shall
learn (as long) as you wish.
REMARKS. — i. Instead of Idem qul, Idem ut is sometimes found.
Disputationeui exponimus elsdem fere verbis ut actum disputatumque
4IO COMPARATIVE SENTENCES.
est, C., Tusc. ii. 3, 9; we are setting forth the discussion in very much
the same words in which it was actually carried on.
On Idem with atque, ac, et, see 643; on Idem with Dat., see 359, N. 6 ;
on Idem with cum, see 310, R. 2.
2. (a) The more — the more, may be translated by quo (quisque) — eo, and
the like, with the comparatives ; but usually by ut (quisque), quam — ita,
tarn, etc., with the superlative, especially when the subj. is indefinite.
Tanto brevius omne quanto fellcius tempus, PLINY, Ep., vm. 14, 10 ;
time is the shorter, the happier it is. Quam citissime confides, tarn
maxims expediet, CATO, Agr., 64, 2; the quicker the better. Ut quisque
sib! plurimum confidit, ita maxime excellit, C., Lael., 9, 30; the more a
man trusts himself, the more he excels.
(b) When the predicate is the same, one member often coalesces with
the other: Optimum quidque rarissimum est, C., Fin., u. 25, 81 (318, 2),
= ut quidque optimum est, ita rarissimum.
3. Tit — ita is often used adversatively (482, 4). On ita — ut, in assev-
erations, see 202.
4. Ut and pro eo ut are frequently used in a limiting or causal sense,
so far as, inasmuch as; pr5 eS ut temporum difficultas tulit (C., Verr.,
in. 54, 126), so far as the hard times permitted ; ut turn re's erant, as
things tvere then; ut temporibus illls (C., Verr., in. 54, 125), for those
times; ut erat furiosus (C., Hose. Am., 12, 33), stark mad as he was; ut
SiculI(C., Tusc., i. 8, 15), as (is, was, to be expected of) Sicilians.
Vir ut inter AetolSs facundus, L., xxxn. 33, 9; a man of eloquence for
an Aetolian. Ut sunt humana, nihil est perpetuom datum, PL. , Cist., 194 ;
as the world wags, nothing is given for good and all.
5. On quam, quantus, and the Superlative, see 303.
Notice in this connection quam qnl, ut qul, and the like, with the
Superlative (usually maxime) :
Tarn sum amlcus rel publicae quam qul maxime (= est), C., Fam., v. 2,
6; / am as devoted a friend to the state as he who is most (= as any
man). Proelium, ut quod maxime umquam, commissum est, L., vii. 33, 5.
Domus celebratur ita, ut cum maxime, C., Q.F.. n. 4, 6.
6. The Correlative forms do not always correspond exactly.
Subeunda dlmicatio totiens, quot coniuratl superessent, L., n. 13, 2.
II. Comparative Sentences with ATQUE (AC).
643. Adjectives and Adverbs of Likeness and Unlikeness
may take atque or ac.
Virtus eadem in homine ac de5 est, C. , Leg. , i. 8, 25 ; virtue is the same
in man as in god. Date operam ne simill utamur fortuna atque usi
sumus, TER., Ph., 30 ; do your endeavour that we have not (il\)-luck like
that we had before. Dissimulatio est cum alia dlcuntur ac sentias, C.,
COMPARATIVE SENTENCES. 411
Or., ii. 67, 269; dissimulation is when other things are said than what
you mean (something is said other than what you mean). Similiter
(602, R. 2) facis ac si me roge"s cur tS duobus contuear oculls, et non altero
conlveam, C., N.D., in. 3, 8; you are acting (like) as if you were to ask
me ivhy I am looking at you with two eyes, and not blinking with one.
N5n dixl secus ac senti8bam, C., Or., n. 6, 24 ; / did not speak otherwise
than I thought.
NOTES.— 1. The expression is commonly explained by an ellipsis : Aliter dixl at-
que [aliter] sentiebam, I spoke one way and yet I was thinking another way.
So we find: Timeo ng aliud credam atque aliud nunties, TER.,Sec.,844; I
fear that I believe one thing, and you are telling another.
2. Instead of atque, et is sometimes used ; this is not common, but the greater pro-
portion of cases occurs in the classical period : Solet enim aliud sentlre et loqui,
C., Fam., viu. i, 3 ; for he has a way of thinking one thing and saying another.
3. These words are principally : aequos, par, pariter, Idem, iuxta (from the
classical period on), perinde, proinde, pro eo ; alius, aliter, secus (usually with a
negative), contra, contrarius, similis, dissimilis, simul ; and rarely item, talis,
totidem, proxime*, and a few others. PLAUTUS uses thus some words which involve
a similar meaning, as (dennutare (M.G., 1130). Compare also M.G., 763 ; B., 725.
4. Alius and secus have quam occasionally at all periods. On the other hand, non
alius and other negative combinations seldom have atque, commonly quam or nisi.
After negative forms of alius CICERO has regularly nisi, occasionally praeter.
Pbilosophia quid est aliud (= nihil est aliud) nisi donum deoruin ?(.'., Tusc.,
i. 26, 64 ; philosophy— what else is it but (he gift of the gods?
III. Comparative Sentences with QUAM.
644. Comparative Sentences with quam follow the com-
parative degree or comparative expressions.
The Verb of the dependent clause is commonly to be sup-
plied from the leading clause, according to 640.
In Comparative Sentences quam takes the same case after
it as before it.
Melior tutiorque est certa pax quam spSrata victoria, L., xxx. 30, 19
(307, R. i). Potius amlcum quam dictum perdidi, QUINT., vi. 3, 20; I pre-
ferred to lose my friend rather than my joke. Velim exis times neminem
culquam cariorem umquam fuisse quam to" mini, C., Fam., i. 9, 24 (546, it. i).
REMARKS. — i. When the second member is a subj., and the first
member an oblique case, the second member must be put in the Nom. ,
with the proper form of the verb esse, unless the oblique case be an
Accusative :
Vicinus tuus equum meli5rem habet quam tuus est, Cf. C., Inv., i. 31, 52
(596). Ego hominem callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormidnem, TEE.,
Ph., 591 ; I have seen no shrewder man than Phormio (= quam Phormio
est). Tib!, multo maiori quam Africanus fuit, me non multo minor em quam
Laelium adiunctum esse patere, Cf. C., Fam,, v. 7, 3.
412 THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
2. On quam pr5, and quam qui, see 298. On the double comparative,
see 299.
3. (a) When two clauses are compared by potius, rather, prius, before,
citius, quicker, sooner, the second clause is put in the Pr. or Impf.
Subjv. (512), with or (in CICERO) without ut.
DSpugna potius quam servias, C., Att., vn. 7, 7 (577, N. 6). (Dixerunt)
se milieus morituros potius quam ut tantura dedecoris adraitti patiantur,
L., IT. 2, 8; they said that they would rather die a thousand times than
(to) suffer such a disgrace to slip in. Morituros sS affirmabant citius
quam in aliSnos mSrgs verterentur, L., xxiv. 3, 12 ; they declared that
they had rather die, than let themselves be changed to foreign ways.
(b) If the leading clause is in the Inf., the dependent clause may
be in the Inf. likewise, and this is the regular construction in classical
Latin when the Inf. follows a verb of Will and Desire ; CICERO uses
the Inf. regularly, CAESAR generally, though examples of the simple
Subjv. are not uncommon in both ; LIVY is very fond of the Subjv.,
especially with ut, which is cited first from him.
86 ab omnibus desertos potius quam abs tS defenses esse malunt, C., Div.
in Caec., 6, 21; they prefer to be deserted by all rather than defended
by you.
NOTES.— 1. Instead of tam— quam, so — as, the Roman prefers the combinations
n5n minus quam— non magis quam (by LltotSs).
(a) N6n minus quam means no less than = quite as much :
Patria hominibus non minus quam liberl cara esse debet, (Cf. C.,) Fam., iv.
5, 2 ; country ought to be no less dear to men than children (= quite as dear as).
The meaning as little as is cited only from TEB., Hec., 647 : n5n tibi illud factual
minus placet quam mihi, where not less than = quite as much as = as little as.
(b) N5n magis quam means quite as little, or quite as much :
Animus n5n magis est sanus quam corpus, Of. C., Tusc., in. 5, 10 ; the mind
is no more sound than the body = as little sound as the body. (Or it might mean : The
mind is no more sound than the body = the body is quite as sound as the mind.)
So with other comparatives.
Fabius uon in armis praestantior fait quam in togS, Cf.C., Cat.M.,4, ll;
Fabius was not more distinguished in war than in peace (no less distinguished in peace
than in war, quite as distinguished in peace as in war).
2. After a negative comparative, atque is occasionally found for quam in PLAUTOS,
TERENCE, CATULLUS, VERGIL; much more often in HORACE (nine times in the
Satires, twice in the Epodes), who uses it also after a positive.
Non Apollinis magis verum atque hoc responsumst, TER., And., 698. nil
non minus ac tibi pectore uritur intimo flamma, CAT., LXI. 176. Cf. H., s., n. ^, 96.
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
645. The compound sentence may be reduced to a simple
sentence, by substituting an Infinitive or a Participle for the
dependent clause.
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE. 413
THE INFINITIVE AND INFINITIVE FORMS.
646. The practical uses of the Infinitive and its kindred
forms, as equivalents of dependent clauses, have already been
considered :
Infinitive after Verbs of Creation : 423.
Gerund and Gerundive : 425-433.
Supine: 434-436.
Infinitive in Object Sentences : 526-531.
Infinitive in Complementary Final Sentences : 532.
Infinitive in Eelative Sentences : 635.
NOTE. — Under the head of the Abridged Sentence will be treated the Historical In-
finitive and Orati5 Obllqua : the Historical Infinitive, because it is a compendious
Imperfect : Oratio Obllqua, because it foreshortens, if it does not actually abridge,
and effaces the finer distinctions of Oratio Recta.
HISTORICAL INFINITIVE.
647. The Infinitive of the Present is sometimes used by
the historians to give a rapid sequence of events, with the
subject in the Nominative ; generally, several Infinitives in
succession.
(VerrSs) minitar! Diodoro, vociferarl palam, lacrimas interdum vix tenSre,
C., Verr., iv. 18, 39 ; Verres threatened (was for threatening) Diodorus,
bawled out before everybody, sometimes could hardly restrain his tears.
NOTES. — 1. The ancient assumption of an ellipsis of coepit, began (QUINT., ix. 3,
58), serves to show the conception, although it does not explain the construction, which
has not yet received a convincing explanation. A curious parallel is de with Infinitive
in French. The Final Infinitive (to be) for, may help the conception, as it sometimes
does the translation. It takes the place of the Imperfect, is used chiefly in rapid pas-
sages, and gives the outline of the thought, and not the details ; it has regularly the
sequence of a Past tense.
2. The Historical Infinitive is sometimes found after cum, ubi, etc. See S., lug.,
98, 2 ; L., in. 37, 6 ; TAC., Ann., n. 4, 4 ; H., in. 31 ; Ann., in. 26, 2. No examples are
cited from CICEUO and CAESAR ; this usage is characteristic of TACITUS.
ORATIO OBLlQUA.
648. The thoughts of the narrator, or the exact words of
a person, as reported by the narrator, are called Oratio Recta,
or Direct Discourse.
Indirect Discourse, or Oratio Obllqua, reports not the exact
words spoken, but the general impression produced.
REMARKS. — I. Uuder the general head of Oratio Obllqua are em-
414 THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
braced also those clauses which imply Indirect Quotation (Partial
Obliquity). See 508.
2. Inquam, quoth I, is used in citing the Oratio Recta ; aio, / say,
generally in Oratio Obliqua. Inquam never precedes the Oratio Obliqua.
but is always parenthetic ; aio may or may not be parenthetic. Oratio
Recta may also be cited by a parenthetic " ut ait," " ut aiunt," rarely
ait, (as) he says, (as) they say. The subject of inquit often precedes
the quotation, but when it is mentioned in the parenthesis it is almost
always put after the verb.
Turn Cotta : rumoribus mecum, inquit, pugnas, C., N.D., in. 5, 13 (484).
Aliquot somnia vSra, inquit Ennius, C., Div., n. 62, 127; "some dreams
are true," quoth Ennius.
3. The lacking forms of inquam are supplied by forms of dlcere.
649. Oratio Obliqua differs from Oratio Recta, partly in the
use of the Moods and Tenses, partly in the use of the pronouns.
NOTES. — 1. It must be remembered that as a rule the Roman thought immediately
in 6. 0., and did not think first in 0. R. and then transfer to 6. 0. ; also that 6. 0. is
necessarily less accurate in its conception than 6. R. , and hence it is not always possible
to construct the 6. R. from the 6. 0. with perfect certainty. What is ideal to the
speaker may become unreal to the narrator, from his knowledge of the result, and hence,
when accuracy is aimed at, the narrator takes the point of view of the speaker, and in
the last resort passes over to 0. Recta.
2. 6. Obliqua often comes in without any formal notice, and the governing verb has
often to be supplied from the contest, sometimes from a preceding negative.
(Regulus) sententiam n6 diceret recusavit ; (saying that) quam diu iure
iurando hostium ten5r6tur, non esse s6 senatorem, C., Off., m. 27, 100.
(Idem Regulus) reddi captivos negavit esse utile ; (saying that) illos enim
adulescentes esse, se iam cQnfectum senectute, v.>.
3. Sometimes, after a long stretch of 0. Obliqua, the writer suddenly shifts to the
0. Recta. Examples : C., Tusc., n. 25, 61 ; L., n. 7, 9, etc.
Moods in Oratio OblTqua.
650. In Oratio Obliqua the principal clauses (except In-
terrogatives and Imperatives) are put in the Infinitive, the
subordinate clauses in the Subjunctive.
Oratio Recta : Apud Hypanim fluvium, inquit Aristoteles,
Oratio Obliqua : Apud Hypanim fluvium Aristoteles ait
0. R. : bestiolae quaedam nascuntur,
6. 0. : bestiolas quasdam nascl,
0. R. : quae unum diem vlvunt,
0. 0. : quae unum diem vlvant, C., Tusc., i. 39, 94.
6. R.— On the river Bog, says Aristotle, I little creatures are born, that live (but)
0. 0. — Aristotle says that on the river Bog, ' one day.
Socrates dlcere solebat :
0. R. Omnes in eo quod sciunt satis sunt eloquentes,
0. 0. Omnes in eo quod sclrent satis esse eloquentes, C., Or., 1. 14, ca
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE. 415
6. B. Socrates used to say : "All men ARE eloquent enough in what they UNDER-
STAND."
0. 0. Socrates used to say that all men WERE eloquent enough in what they UNDER-
STOOD.
REMARK. — When the Principal Clause, or Apodosis, is in the Indie.,
the Inf. is used according to the rule for Verbs of Saying and Think-
ing. When the Principal Clause, or Apodosis, is in the Subjv., as in
the Ideal and Unreal Conditions, special rules are necessary (656).
Otherwise, Subjv. in 0. B. continues to be Subjv. in 6. 0.
NOTE.— In CAESAR, B.C., 111.73, "> where a principal clause is apparently put in
the Subjv., instead of dStrlmentum in bonum verteret, read (fore ut) . . . verte-
ret, with Vossius, Dubner, Perrin, Hoffmann. NEP., n. 7, 6, is disputed.
651. Interrogative sentences are put in the Subjunctive,
according to 467 ; inasmuch as the verb of Saying involves
the verb of Asking.
Ariovistus respondit se prius in Galliam venisse quam populum Roma-
num : quid sibl vellet cur in suas possessi5n6s veniret, CAES., B.G., i. 44,
7 ; Ariovistus replied that he had come to Gaul before the Roman peo-
ple; what did he (Caesar) mean by coming into his possessions 9 (Quid
tibi vis \)
REMARKS. — i. Indicative Rhetorical Questions (464), being substan-
tially statements, are transferred from the Indie, of 6. B. to the Ace.
and Inf. of 6. 0. when they are in the First and Third Persons. The
Second Person goes into the Subjunctive.
6. B. Num possum * Can I ? [No.] 0. 0. Num posse 1
CAES., B.G.,i. 14; Could lie ?
Quid est turpius 1 What is baser ? [Nothing.] Quid esse turpius 1
CAES., B.Cf., v. 28, 6; What was baser ?
Quo se repulses ab Bomanls itiir5s ? L., xxxiv. 11,6; whither should
they go, if repelled by the Romans ? (Quo Ibimus ?) Cui non apparc-re
ab e5 qul prior arma intulisset iniuriam ortam (esse) * L., xxxn. 10, 6; to
whom is it not evident that the wrong began with him, who had been
the first to wage war ? (Cui non apparet ?)
Examples are not found in early Latin, are rare in classical period,
but are especially common in LIVY.
Si bonum ducerent, quid pr5 noxio damnassent? L., xxvu. 34, 13;' if
they thought him a good man, why had they condemned him as guilty ?
(Si bonum ducitis, quid pro noxio damnastis \)
The Question in the Second Person often veils an Imperative. Here
from LIVY on the Subjv. is the rule.
Nee cessabant Sabini lustars rogit antes quid tererent tempus, L.,ni.
61, 13. (0. B., Quid teritis *)
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
Exceptions are rare ; Subjv. with Third Person, CAES., B.C., i. 32,
8; Inf. with Second Person, L., vi. 39, 10.
2. In Subjv. Rhetorical Questions the Subjv. is either retained or
transferred to the Infinitive. The Deliberative? Subjv. is always retained.
Qiiis sibi persuaderet sine certa re Ambiorigem ad eiusmodl consilium
discendisse 1 CAES., B. G., v. 29, 5 ; who could persuade himself that
Ambiorix had proceeded to an extreme measure like that, without (hav-
ing made) a sure thing (of it) ? (Quis sibi persuadeat 1)
The Inf. form would be the Future : quern sibi persuasurum 1 (G59),
and is not to be distinguished from the Fut. Indicative.
652. Imperative sentences are put in the Subjunctive,
sometimes with, usually without, ut; the Negative is, of
course, ne (never ut ne).
Eedditur responsum : nondura tempos pugnae ease ; castrls se tenerent,
L., n. 45, 8; there teas returned for answer, that it was not yet time to
fight, that they must keep within the camp. (0. R., castrls v5s ten§te.)
(Vercingetorfx) cohortatus est : ng perturbarentur incommode, CAES., B.G.,
vn. 29, 1 ; Vercingetorix comforted them (by saying) that they must not
allow themselves to be disconcerted oy the disaster. (0. E., nSlite per-
turbarf.)
REMARKS. — i. TTt can be used according to 546, after verbs of Will
and Desire and their equivalents.
Pytbia respondit nt moenibus llgnels s6 munlrent, NEP., n. 2,6 ; the
Pythia answered that they must defend themselves with walls of wood.
2. Verbs of Will and Desire, being also verba dlcendi, frequently
have an nt clause followed by an Ace. with the Inf., the second clause
adding a statement to the request.
TTbil orabant ut sibi auxilium ferret ; ad auxilium spemqne reliqul tem-
poris satis futurum, CAES., B.G., iv. 16, 5.
Tenses in Oratio Obliqua.
653. The Tenses of the Infinitive follow the laws already
laid down (530) :
The Present Infinitive expresses contemporaneous action ;
The Perfect Infinitive expresses prior action ;
The Future Infinitive expresses future action.
REMARK. — The Impf. Indie., as expressing prior continuance,
becomes the Pf . Inf. in 6. 0., and hence loses its note of continuance.
654. The Tenses of the Subjunctive follow the laws of
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
417
sequence (510). The choice is regulated by the point of
new of the Reporter, or the point of view of the Speaker.
NOTE.— By assuming the point of view of the speaker, greater liveliness as well as
greater accuracy is imparted to the discourse. This form is technically called Reprae-
sentatiS. In Conditional Sentences RepraesentatiS often serves to prevent ambigu-
ity. The point of view not unf requently shifts from reporter to speaker, sometimes in
the same sentence ; this has the effect of giving additional emphasis to the primary
verb, and is therefore common in commands and in favourable alternatives.
Point of View of the Reporter :
Legation! Ariovistus respondit : sibl mirum viderl quid in sua G-allia
quam bel!5 vicisset, Caesar! negotii esset, CAES. , B. G. , i. 34, 4 ; to the
embassy Ariovistus replied, that it seemed strange to him (he wondered)
what business Caesar had in his Gaul, which he had conquered in
war.
Point of View of the Speaker :
[ Legatis Helvetiorum] Caesar respondit : consuesse decs immortales, quo
gravius homings ex commutatione rerum doleant, quos pro scelere eorum
ulclscl velint, his secundi5r5s interdum rSs concSdere, CAES., B.G., i. 14, 5;
to the envoys of the Helvetians Caesar replied, that the gods were (are)
wont, that men might (may) suffer the more severely from change in
their fortunes, to grant occasional increase of prosperity to those whom
they wished (wish) to punish for their crime. (A long passage is L.,
xxvni. 32.)
Point of View shifted :
Ad haec Marcius respondit : SI quid ab senatu petere vellent, ab armls
discedant, S., C., 34, 1; thereto Marcius replied: If they wished to ask
anything of the senate, they must lay down their arms.
Proinde aut cSderent (undesired alternative) animo atque virtute genti
per eos dies totiens ab se victae, aut itineris finem sperent (desired alterna-
tive) campum inter iacent em Tiber! ac moenibus Romanls, L., xxi. 30, 11 ;
therefore they should either yield in spirit and courage to a nation
which during those days they had so often conquered, or they must hope
as the end of their march the plain that lies between the Tiber and the
walls of Rome.
655. Object, Causal, Temporal, and Relative Clauses fol-
low the general laws for Subordinate Clauses in Oratio
Obliqua.
For examples of Object Clauses, see 525 ; for Causal, see 541 ; for
Temporal, see 561-564, 569-577; for Relative, see 628.
REMARKS. — i. Coordinate Relative Clauses are put in the Ace. and
Infinitive (635).
27
41 8 THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
2. Relative Clauses are put in the Indicative : (a) In mere circum-
locutions, (b) In explanations of the narrator (628, R.).
3. Dam, with the Indie., is often retained as a mere circumlocution:
Die, hospes, Spartae nos te hie vidisse iacentis, dum sanctis patriae legl-
bus obsequimur, C., Tusc., i. 42, 101 ; tell Sparta, stranger, that thou hast
seen us lying here obeying (in obedience to) our country's hallowed
laws.
So also sometimes cum ; see C., Lael., 3, 12.
656. Conditional Sentences in Oratio Obllqua, Total and
Partial.
1. The Protasis follows the rule.
2. The Indicative Apodosis follows the rule, but Present,
Imperfect, and Perfect Subjunctive are turned into the
Future Infinitive or its periphrases.
The Pluperfect Subjunctive is transferred to the Perfect
Infinitive of the Active Periphrastic Conjugation.
Passive and Supineless Verbs take the circumlocution
with futurum fuisse ut . . . . 248, N. 3.
REMARK. — Fosse needs no Fut. (248, R.), and potuisse no Periphrastic
Pf. Inf., so that these forms are often used to lighten the construction.
3. Identical Forms. — In the transfer of Conditions to
6. 0., the difference between many forms disappears. For
instance,
I. 1. SI id credis, errabis. "j
2. SI id crScles, errabis. I Dico te, si id creuas, erraturum esse.
3. SI id credas, erres.
II. 1. SI id crgdis, errabis. 1
a S Id X, Sff1-
4. Si id crederes, errares. '
HI. l. SI id crgdideris, errabis.
3. ll'idSSS; Serf,
4. SI id cr6didiss6s, errarSs,
NOTES. — 1. In No. I. the difference is not vital, though exactness is lost.
2. (a) In No. II. the ambiguity lies practically between 2 and 3 ; inasmuch as
Hepraesentatio is usually employed for the Logical Condition, and the Periphrastic
Pf . Inf. is employed in the Unreal, wherever it is possible. The difference between
an Unfulfilled Present and an Unfulfilled Past would naturally vanish to the narrator,
to whom both are Past.
Ariovistus rospondit : si quid ipsl a Caesare opus esset, sese ad ilium ven-
tiirum fuisse : si quid ille s6 velit, ilium ad s6 venire oportere, CAES., B. G., i.
THE ABEIDGED SENTENCE. 419
34, 2 ; Arwvistus answered, that if he had wanted anything of Caesar he would have
come to him ; if he (Caesar) wanted anything of him, he ought to come to him (Ario-
vistus). 0. B. : si quid mihi a Caesare opus esset, ego ad ilium venissem ; si
quid ille mS vult, ilium ad mS venire oportet.
Fatentur se virtutis causa, nisi ea voluptatem faceret, ne manum quidem
versuros fuisse, C., Fin., v. 31, 93 ; they confess that for virtue's own sake, if it did
not cause pleasure, they would not even turn a hand. 0, R. : nisi ea voluptatem
faceret n5 manum quidem verterSmus.
(6) Occasionally in the Logical Condition the Put. Indie, is changed to the Fut.
Periphrastic Subjv., thus : si adsJmsurus esset, etiam opinaturum is an Q. 0.
quotation for si ... adsentiStur, opinabitur in C., Ac., n. 21, 67.
3. No. III., like No. II., is used chiefly of the future. Bat in 3 the periphrases with
fore (futurum esse) are commonly employed for the active and the Pf . participle, with
fore for the passive. In 4 the same fading out of the difference between Unfulfilled
Present and Past occurs as in II.
657. Logical Conditions in Oratio Obliqua.
1. Ad haec Ariovistus respondit : si ipse populo Romans non praescri-
beret quemadmodum suo iure uterStur, non oportere sese a populo Romano in
su5 iure impediri, CAES., E.G., i. 36, 2 ; to this Arwvistus made answer:
If he did not prescribe to the Roman people how to exercise their right,
he ought not to be hindered by the Roman people in the exercise of his
right. (0. B. : si ego non praescrfoo, non oportet me impediri.)
2. Si bonum ducerent, quid pro noxio damnassent 1 Si noxium com-
perissent, quid alterum (consulatum) crSderent? L., xxvu. 34, 13; if they
thought him a good man, why had they condemned him as guilty ; if,
on the other hand, they had found him guilty, why did they intrust
him with a second consulship 9 (0. B. : si — ducitis, quid damnastis ? si —
comperistis, quid creditis ? )
3. Titurius clamitabat, suam sententiam in utramque partem esse
tutam ; si nihil esset (0. B. : si nihil erit) durius, nullo perlculo ad proxi-
mam legionem perventuros (0. B, : pervenietis) ; si Gallia omnis cum Ger-
manis consentiret (0. B. : si consentit) unam esse (6. B. : est) in celeritate
positam salutem, CAES., B.G., v. 29, 6; Titurius kept crying out that
his resolution was safe in either case : if there were (should be) no
especial pressure, they would get to the next legion without danger ; if
all Gaul was in league with the Germans, their only safety lay in speed.
4. Eum omnium laborum finem fore exlstimabant si hostem Ilibero
inter clud ere potuissent, CAES., B.C., i. 68, 3; they thought that would be
the end of all (their) toils, if they could cut off the enemy from the
Ebro. (6. B. : is laborum finis erit (or fuerit) si hostem intercludere
potuerimus.
5. [HI] lugurthae non mediocrem animum pollicitando aecendebant si
Micipsa rgx occidisset, fore uti solus imperi Numidiae potirgtur, 3., lug., 8,
1 ; these persons kindled no little courage in Jugurtha('s heart) by prom-
ising over and over that if King Micipsa fell, he alone should possess the
rule over Numidia. (0. B. : si Micipsa occiderit, tu solus imperi potiSris.)
42O THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
6. [FidSs data est] si lugurtham vlvom ant necatum sib! tradidisset
fore ut ill! senatus inpunitatem et sua omnia concederet, S., lug., 61, 5; his
word was pledged that if he delivered to him Jugurtha, alive or dead,
the senate would grant him impunity, and all that was his. (6. E. : si
mih! tradideris, tibi senatus tua omnia concedet. )
7. Non mul to ante urbem captam exaudita vox est ... futurum esse,
nisi provisum esset, ut Roma caperStur, C., Div., i. 45, 101 ; not long before
the taking of the city, a voice was heard (saying), that unless precau-
tions were adopted, Rome would be taken. (0. B. : nisi provisum erit,
Roma capietur. )
8. Ariovistus respondit si quid ille sg velit ilium ad sS venire oportere,
CAES., E.G., i. 34, 2 (656, 3, N. 2).
9. Ariovistus respondit nisi decgdat [Caesar] sese ilium pro hoste habi-
turum ; quod si eum interfecerit, multis sese nobilibus principibusque populi
Romani gratum esse facturum, CAES., B.G., i. 44, 12; Ariovistus replied,
that unless Caesar withdrew, he should regard him as an enemy, and
in case he killed him, he would do a favour to many men of the highest
position among the Roman people. (0. E. : nisi decodes te pro hoste
habgbo . . . si tS interfgcero gratum fecsro: 244, B. 4.)
REMARK. — Posse is used as has been stated (656, 2, R.).
Negarunt diriml bellum posse nisi Messeniis Achaei Pylum redderent,
L., xxvn. 30, 13 ; they said that the war could not be stopped unless the
Achaeans restored Pylos to the Messenians. (6. E. : bellum diriml n6n
potest (potent) nisi Pylum reddent.)
Docent, si turris concidisset, non posse militSs continer! quin spe praedae
in urbem irrumperent, CAES., B.C., 11. 12, 4; they show that if the tower
fell, the soldiers could not be kept from bursting into the city in the hope
of booty. (6. E. : si conciderit, non possunt (poterunt) contineri.)
658. Ideal Conditions in Oratio Obliqua.
1. Ait sS si uratur " Quam hoc suave " dicturum, C., Fin., n. 27, 88; he
declares that if he were to be burnt he would say, " How sweet this is."
(0. E. : si urar, dicam, same form as Logical.)
2. Voluptatem si ipsa pro sg loquatur concessuram arbitror Dignitati,
C., Fin., in. i, 1 ; J think that if Pleasure were to speak for herself, she
would yield (the palm) to Virtue. The contest shows that the condi
tioii is Ideal, not Logical. Si loquatur, concedat. Compare 596, R. i.
659. Unreal Conditions in Oratio Obliqua.
i. Titurius clamitabat Eburongs, si [Caesar] adesset, ad castra ventures
[non] esse, CAES., .B.6?., v. 29, 2 ; Titurius kept crying out that if
Caesar were there, the Eburones would not be coming to the camp.
'.0. E. ; si Caesar adesset, Eburoues non venirent.) On the rareness of
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE. 421
this form, see 599, R. 4 ; and even this passage has been emended into
ventures sesS (for esse).
2. | Apparebat | si diutius vlxisset, Hamilcare dace Poencs arma Italiae
inlaturos fuisse, L., xxi. 2, 2; it was evident that if he had lived longer,
the Punics would have carried their arms into Italy under Hamilcar's
conduct.
3. Nisi eo ipso temper e nun til de Caesar is victoria essent allatl exlstima-
bant plgrique futurum fuisse ut (oppidum) amitterStur, CAES., B. C., m.
101, 3 ; had not news of Caesar's victory been brought at that very time,
most persons thought the city would have been lost. (0. E. : nisi nuntil
allatl essent, oppidum amissum esset.)
NOTE. — As the Plupf. Indie, is sometimes used (rhetorically) for the Subjv. (254, K.
3), BO the ordinary Pf . Inf. is sometimes employed instead of the Periphrastic :
Nemo mihi persuadebit multos praestantes viros tanta esse conatos
( •- conaturos fuisse) nisi animo cernerent (597, B. i) posteritatem ad se perti-
nSre, C., Cat. M., 23, 82; tio one will persuade me that (so) many eminent men had
made such mighty endeavours, had they not seen with their minds'" (eye) that posterity
belonged to them. Agricola solebat narrare s§ prima in iuventa studium
phiiosophiae acrius hausisse (0. R. : hauserat), nl prudentia matris coercu-
isset, Cf. TAC., Agr., 4, 5 ; Agricola used to relate that in his earliest youth he would
have drunk in more eagerly the study of philosophy, had not his mother's prudence
restrained him.
So with potuisse :
(PompSium) plerlque exlstimant s! acrius InsequI voluisset bellum eo diS
potuisse finire, CAES., B. C., in. 51, 3 ; most people think that if Pompey had (but)
determined to follow up more energetically, he could have finished the war on that day.
(0. B. : si voluisset, potuit, 597, R. 3.) Namque ilia multitudine si sana mens
esset (597, B. i) Graeciae, supplicium Persas dare potuisse, NEP., xvii. 5, 2 ; for
with that number, if Greece' had had (had been in her) sound mind, the Persians
might have paid the penalty (due). (0. R. : si sana m6ns esset Graeciae, suppli-
cium Persae dare potuerunt.)
Pronouns in Oratio Obliqua.
660. i. The Reflexive is used according to the principles
laid down in 520 ff.
2. The person addressed is usually ille ; less often is.
Ariovistus respondit nisi decedat [Caesar] sese ilium pro hoste habitu-
rum : quod si eum interfecerit, multis sese nobilibus prlncipibusque popull
Romani gratum esse facturum, CAES., B.G., i. 44, 12 (657, 9).
Of course, this does not exclude the ordinary demonstrative use.
3. Hie and iste are commonly changed into ille or is, mine
is changed into turn and tune, except when already contrasted
with tune, when it is retained (S., lug., 109, 3 ; in, 1).
Diodorus [respondit] illud argentum se paucis illis diebus mlsisse Lily-
baeum, C., Verr., iv. 18, 39 (398, R. 4).
422
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
4. Nos is used when the narrator's party is referred to ;
compare CAES., B. G,, i. 44, below.
5. Ipse seems to be used sometimes in 6. 0. with reference
to the principal subject, as contrasted with the person ad-
dressed. Usually, however, ipse would have occurred in the
0. E. as well.
Ariovistus respondit : Si ipse populo Romano non praescriberet, quemad-
mochim suo lore uteretur, non oportere sese a populo Romano in suo iure
impedirl, CAES., B.G., i. 36, 2 (657).
661. Specimens of the conversion of Oratio Obllqua into
Oratio Recta.
Oratio Obllqua.
i. Ariovistus respondit :
Transisse Rhenum sese non sud
sponte sed rogatum et arcessltuw
a Gallis ; non sine magna spe ma-
gnlsque praemiis domum propin-
quosque rellqm'sse; sedes habere
in Gallia ab ipsis concessas, obsides
ipsorum voluntate datSs ; stlpen-
dium capere iure belli, quod vic-
tSres victis imponere consuerin/.
Non sese Gallis sed G&llos sibi bel-
lum iutuKsse ; omnBs Galliae clvi-
tates ad se oppugnandum \enisse
et contra se castra habuisse ; eo-s
omn6s copias a se uno proelio pul-
sfls ac superStos esse. Si iterum
experiri velint, se iterum paratuw
esse decertare ; si pace uti velint,
inlquum esse d5 stipendio recusare,
quod sua voluntate ad id tempus
pependerin^. Amlcitiam populi
Roman! sibi Ornaments et prae-
sidio, non detriments esse oportere
idque se ea spB petisse. Si per
populum Romanum stlpendium
remitta^wr et deditlcil subtrahaw-
tur, non minus libenter sese recusa-
turum populi RomanI amlcitiam
quam appetierit. Quod multitu-
dinem GermanSrum in Galliam
traduea^, id se sul muniendl, non
Galliae impiignandae causa i&cere ;
Eius rel testimonio esse quod nisi
rogatus non venenY et quod bellum
non intulen'i sed defenderiY.
CAES., B. G.,i. 44.
Oratio Recta.
Transz* Rhenum non mea sponte
sed rogatus et arcessltus a Gallis ;
n5n sine mffigna sp5 magnlsque
praemiis domum propinquosque
reliqui; sedes habe5 in Gallia ab
ipsis concessas, obsides ipsorum
voluntate datos; stlpendium capi'5
iure belli, quod victores victis im-
ponere consuerim(. Non ego Gal-
as sed Galll mihl bellum intule-
runt ; omnes Galliae clvitates ad
me oppugnandum vQnerunt et con-
tra me castra babuerunt ; eae om-
nes copiae a me uno proelio pulsae
ac superatae sunt. SI iterum ex-
perirl volunt, iterum paratus sum
decertare, si pace uti volunt, inl-
quum est de stipendio recusare,
quod sua voluntate ad hoc tempus
pependerunt. Amlcitiam populi
RomanI mihl ornameuto et prae-
sidio, nOn detriments esse oporte£
idque ea spe petn. Si per populum
Romanum stlpendium remitter
et deditlcil subtrabentur, nSn mi-
nus libenter recusaZw populi RS-
manl amlcitiam quam appetw.
Quod multitudinem GermanSrum
in Galliam traducam,* id mel mu-
niendl, non Galliae impiignandae
causa facio; eius rel testimonio est
quod nisi rogatus non vent et quod
bellum nSn intul* sed defend*.
* Allusion to the preceding speech,
otherwise traducS.
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
423
Oratid Obllqua.
2. His Caesar it a respondit :
Ed sibi, minus dubitationis darl
quod eas rBs quas legati HelvBtil
commemorassent memoria teneret
atque eo gravius ferre quo minus
merito populi R5manl &ccidissent ;
qui si alicuius iniuriae sibi conscius
fuisset non fume difficile cavere ;
sed eO deceptum quod neque com-
missum a sB inteilegeret quarB ti-
meret neque sine causa timendum
pntdret. Quod si veteris contume-
liae obllvlsci vellet, num etiam re-
centium iniuriarum, quod eo invlto
iter per prOvinciam per vim temp-
tdssent, quod Aeduos, quod Am-
barrCs, quod Allobrogas vexassent
memoriam deponere posse 9 Quod
sud victoria tarn insolenter gloria-
rentur, quodque tarn diu. se impune
tulisse iniurias admlrarentur • e5-
dem pertinere. Consume enim
deds immortalBs quo gravius ho-
mines ex commutatione r5rum
doleant, quos pro scelere eOrum
ulciscl vetint, his secundiorBs in-
terdum res et diuturniorem impu-
nitatem concBdere. Cum ea ita
sint, tamen si obsidBs ab ils sibi
dentur, uti ea quae polliceemtfw
factui'os intellega^, et si Aeduis dB
iniuriis quas ipsis sociisque eorum
intulerint, item si Allobrogibus
satisfaciaw^, sese cum ils pacem
esse facturum.
CAES., B.Q., i. 14.
Oratio E6cta.
Hoc mihl minus dubitatiCnis
datur quod eas rBs quas vos, legati
HelvBtii, commemordstis, memoria
teneo atque hoc gravius fero quo
minus merito populi Roman! acci-
derunt ; qui si alicuius iniuriae
sib! cSnscius fuisset, non fn.it diffi-
cile cavere ; sed eo dBceptus quod
neque commissum a sB intellegefta^
quarB timBret neque sine causa ti-
mendum puttibat. Quod si veteris
contumBliae oblivlsci void, num
etiam recentium iniuriarum, quod
me invitO iter per prOvinciam per
vim tern ptasta's, quod AeduSs, quod
Ambarros, quod Allobrogas vexa-
stis, memoriam deponere possum?
Quod vestra victoria tarn msolenter
glon&mini, quodque tarn diu vos
impune tulisse iniurias admlrdminl
eOdem pertine^. Consuevenmt
enim di immortalBs quo gravius
homines ex commutatione rerum
doleant, quOs pro scelere eSrum
ulciscl volunt, his secundiores in-
terdum res et diuturniorem impu-
nitatem concedere. Cum haec ita
sint, tamen si obsides a vobls mihl
dabuntur, uti ea, quae potticemini,
facturos intellegam et si Aeduis dB
iniuriis quas ipsis sociisque eorum
intub'sfo's, item si Allobrogibus
satisfacie^'s, ego voblscum pacem
faciam.
3. Sulla regl patefecit :
Quod pollicea^wr, senatuw et
populuTO Romanuw, quoniam am-
plius armis valuissent, nOn in gra-
tiam h&bitiirds; faciundum ali-
quid, quod illorum magis quam
sud retulisse \ideretur; id ideo in
promptu esse, quoniam lugurthae
cOpiam haberet, quern si ROmanls
tr&didisset, fore ut illl plurimum
deberetur ; amlcitiam, f oedus, Nu-
midiae partem, quam nunc peteret,
tune ultro adven^ram.
S., lug., in.
Quod pollicms, senatus et popu-
lus Romanus quoniam amplius
armis valuerunt, non in gratiam
b&bebunt • faciundum aliquid, quod
illorum magis quam tud retulisse
videdtur; id ideo in promptu est,
quoniam lugurthae copiam habes,
quern si Romanls tradiderls tibl
plurimum dBbei*7wr; amicitia, foe-
dus, Numidiae pars, quam nunc
pett's, tune ultro adven»e^.
424
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
Oratio Obllqua.
4. Athenienses deplordverunt
vastdtionem populdtionemque mi-
serabilem agrorum. Neque se id
queri quod hostilia ab hoste passl
forent; esse enim quaedam belli
iura quae ut facere ita pat! sit fas.
Sata exiiri, dirui tecta, praedas
hominum pecorumque agi misera
magis quam indigna patientl esse ;
verum enim vBrfl id se quen, quod
is, qui Romanes alienigenas et bar-
baros vocet, adeo omnia simul dl-
vina humanaque itira pollum'i ut
priore populatione cum Infernis
diis, secunda cum superis bellum
nefarium gesserit. Omnia sepul-
cra monumentaque diruta esse in
finibus suls, omnium nudatos
manes, nullius ossa terra tegl.
Qualem terram Atticam fecerit,
exOrnatam quondam opulentam-
que, talem eum si licea^ Aetoliam
Graeciamque omnem i&cturum.
Urbis quoque suae similem defOr-
mitdtem futuram fuisse, nisi Ro-
manl subvenissent.
L., xxxi. 30.
Gratis Recta.
Non id querimur quod hostilia
ab hoste passl sumus. Sunt enim
quaedam belli iura quae ut facere
ita pati est fas. Sata exuri, dirui
tecta, praedas hominum pecorum-
que agi misera magis quam indigna
patientl sunt ; verum enim verO id
querimur quod is, qul Romanes
alienigenas et barbaros vocat, adeo
omnia simul divina humanaque
iura pollmY ut priore populatione
cum Infernis diis, secunda cum su-
perls bellum nefarium gesserit.
Omnia sepulcra monumentaque di-
ruta sunt in finibus nostrls, omni-
um nudat* manes, nullius ossa terrS
teguntur. Qualem terram Atticam
iecit, exornatam quondam opulen-
tamque, talem is, si \\cebit (or :
liceatf) Aetoliam Graeciamque om-
nem is&iet (or : faciat). Urbis
quoque nostrae simili's deformitos
fuisset, nisi Romanl subvenissent.
INVOLVED ORATIO OBLlQUA. ATTRACTION OF
MOOD.
662. OratiS Obllqua proper depends on some verb of Thinking or
Saying, expressed or understood. In a more general sense the term 6.
Obliqua is used of all complementary clauses that belong to ideal rela-
tions. The principle is the same in both sets of sentences, for in the
one, as in the other, the Infinitive takes its dependencies in the Sub-
junctive, on account of the close relation between the Ideal mood and
the Substantive Idea of the verb. Hence the favourite combination of
the Infinitive and the Ideal Second person :
Difficile est amlcitiam manere si a virtute dgfScerls, C., Lael., n, 87; it
is hard for friendship to abide if you (one) have fallen away from vir-
tue. Proprium humanl ingenil est odisse quern laeseris, TAG., Agr., 42,
4 ; it is (peculiar to) human nature to hate whom you have injured.
(But odisti quern laesistl.)
The so-called attraction of mood, by which clauses originally Indica-
tive become Subjunctive in dependence on Subjunctives, is another
phase of the same general principle.
THE ABEIDGED SENTENCE. 425
663. i. All clauses which depend on Infinitives and Sub-
junctives, and form an integral part of the thought, are put
in the Subjunctive (Subjunctive by Attraction).
Recordatione nostrae amicitiae sic fruor ut beats vlxisse videar quia com
Sclpione vixerim, C., Lael, , 4, 15 : / enjoy the remembrance of our friend-
ship so much that I seem to have lived happily because I lived with
Scipio. Vereor nS dum minuere velim labOrem augeam, C., Leg., i, 4, 12;
I fear lest while I am wishing to lessen the toil I may increase it (dum
minuere volo, augeo). Isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit, ne requlras,
C., Cat.M., 10, 33 (263, 2, a). QuarS fisbat ut omnium oculos quotiescum-
que in publicum prodisset ad sS converteret, NEP., vn. 3, 5 (567; quoties-
cumque prodierat con vert ebat). Nescire quid antequam natus sis accident,
id est semper ease puerum, C., Or., 34, 120 ; not to know what happened
before you were born, (that) is to be always a boy. Fraus fldem in parvis
sibl praestruit ut cum operae pretium sit, cum mercede magna fallat, L.,
xxvin. 42, 7 ; fraud lays itself a foundation of credit in small things
in order that when it is worth while it may make a great profit by
cheating. [Araneolae] rSte texunt ut si quid inhaeserit confidant, C.,
N.D., ii. 48, 123 (567 ; si quid inhaesit conficiunt). AbeuntI si quidpopos-
cerit concedere mSris, TAG., G., 21, 4 ; to the departing (guest) it is
customary to grant anything that he asks (si quid poposcit concSdunt).
NOTES.— 1. Dum not unfrequently resists the Attraction both in prose and poetry :
Tantum ne noceas dum vis prodesse vidStQ, Ov., Tr.. 1. 1, 101 (548).
2. On the retention of the Indie, in Eelative clauses, see 628, B.
2. PARTIAL OBLIQUITY. — (a) From this it is easy to see how the
Subjunctive came to be used in a Generic or Iterative sense after
Tenses of Continuance. Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative
may all involve the Notion of Habit, Will, Inclination, Endeavour, and
the complementary clauses would follow the sense rather than the form.
For examples, see 567, N.
(6) So also is explained the use of the Subjunctive in Causal Sen-
tences, and especially in Conditional Sentences, where the Apodosis is
embodied in the leading verb.
(lugurtha) timSbat Iram senatus (= nS IrascerStur senatus) ni paruisset
ISgatls, S., lug., 25, 7 (601). [TTbils] auxilium suum (= s6 auxiliaturum)
pollicitus est, si ab Suebls premerentur, CAES., B.O., iv. 19, 1. Praetor
aedem (= se aedificaturum) Diovl vovit si e5 die hostis fudisset, L., xxxi.
21, 12.
The idea of 6. 0. is shown in the tense :
Si per Metellum licitum esset matres veniebant (— venturae erant), C.,
Verr., v. 49, 129. [Dictator] ad hostem ducit nullo loco nisi necessitas
cogeret fortunae s6 commissurus, L., xxn. 12, 2 (438, N.).
426 PAKTICIPIAL SENTENCES.
PARTICIPIAL SENTENCES.
664. Participles are used in Latin even more extensively
than in English, to express a great variety of subordinate
relations, such as Time and Circumstance, Cause and Occa-
sion, Condition and Concession. The classification cannot
always be exact, as one kind blends with another.
REMARKS. — I. It is sometimes convenient to translate a Participial
Sentence by a coordinate clause, but the Participle itself is never coor-
dinate, and such clauses are never equivalents. (410, R. 2.)
Manlius Gallum caesura torque spoliavit, L., vi. 42, 5; Manlius slew the
Gaul and stripped him of his neckchain (after slaying the Gaul stripped
him of his neckchain, having slain, etc.). (Miltiades) capitis absolutus,
pecunia multatus est, NEP., i. 7, 6; Miltiades (though) acquitted of a cap-
ital charge, was mulcted in (a sum of) money (was acquitted, but mulcted).
2. A common translation of the Participle is an abstract substan-
tive; see 325, R. 3; 437, N.2.
Nee terra mutata mutavit mores, L., xxxvn. 54, 18 ; nor hath the
change of land changed the character. Teucer TJlixgn reum facit Aiacis
occisi, QUINT., iv. 2, 13 ; Teucer indicts Ulysses for the murder of Ajax.
Inter haec parata atque decreta, S.. C., 43, 3.
3. On the Participle after verbs of Perception and Representation,
see 536.
665. Participles may represent Time When.
Alexander moriens anuluni suum dederat Ferdiccae, NEP., xvm. 2, 1;
Alexander (when he was) dying, had given his ring to Perdiccas.
Dionysius tyrannus Syracusis expulsus CorinthI pueros docSbat, C., Tusc.,
m. 12, 27; Dionysius the tyrant, (after he had been) exiled from Syra-
cuse (after his exile from Syracuse), taught (a) boys' (school) at Corinth.
Ablative Absolute.
(Solon et Pisistratus) Servio Tulli5 rSgnante vigu6runt, C., Br., 10, 39;
Solon and Pisistratus flourished when Servius Tullius was king (in the
reign of Servius Tullius). S5le orto VolscI sS circumvallatos vlderunt,
Cf. L., iv. 9, 13; when the sun was risen (after sunrise), the Volscians
saw that they were surrounded by lines of intrenchment.
NOTES.— 1. On the Abl. Abe. of the simple Participle, see 410, N. 4.
2. SUETONIUS uses the Abl. Abe. as well as the simple Participle with ante (prius)
quam : (Tiberius) exc5ssum AugustI n5n prius palanx fBcit quam Agrippa
iuvene interempto, Tib., 22 ; see also lul., 58.
PARTICIPIAL SENTENCES. 427
666. Participles may represent Cause Why.
Areopagltae damnaverunt puerum coturnicum oculos eruentem, Cf.
QUINT., v. 9, 13; the court of Mars' Hill condemned a boy for plucking
out (because he plucked out) the eyes of quails. Ath§niSns6s Alcibia-
dem corruptum a rege Persarum capere noluisse Cymen arguebant, Cf. NEP.,
vii. 7,2; the Athenians charged Alcibiades with having been unwill-
ing to take Cyme (because he had been) bribed by the King of Persia.
Ablative Absolute.
(Roman! veteres) rggnarl omnes volSbant llbertatis dulcedine nondum
experts, L., i. 17, 3 ; the old Romans all wished to have a king over them
(because they had) not yet tried the sweetness of liberty.
NOTE. — An apparent cause is given by ut, as, velut, as, for instance, tamquam,
(BO) CM, quasi, as if, see 602, N. 3.
lu this usage CICERO and CAESAR are very careful, employing only quasi, ut,
LIVT introduces tamquam, utpote, velut, and the tendency grows until it reaches
its culmination in TACITUS.
667: Participles may represent Condition and Concession.
SI latet ars prSdest, affert dSprSnsa pudorem, Ov., A. A., n. 313 (593,
2). [Blsus] interdum ita repente erumpit ut eum cupientes tenere nequea-
mus, Cf. C., Or., n. 58, 235 (609). (Miltiades) capitis absolutus, pecunia
multatus est, NEP., i. 7, 6(664, E. i).
Ablative Absolute.
Maximas virtutSs iacere omngs necesse est voluptate dominante, C., Fin.,
n. 35, 117 (593, 2).
NOTE.— On the combination of quamquam, quamvis, and etsi with the Participle,
see 609, N. 1 ; nisi also is not uncommon ; tamen is sometimes added in the principal
clause.
668. Participles may represent Eelative Clauses (637).
OmnSs aliud agentSs, aliud simulantgs, perfidl (sunt), C., Off., in. 14, 60
(637). [Flsistratus] Homeri libros confuses antea sic disposuisse dicitur ut
nunc habSmus, C., Or., in. 34, 137 (637).
REMARK. — So-called, qul dicitur, vocatur, quern vocant ; above-men-
tioned, quern antea, supra dlximus.
669. Future Participle (Active). — The Future Participle is a verbal
adjective, denoting Capability and Tendency, chiefly employed in the
older language with sum, I am, as a periphrastic tense. In later Latin
it is used freely, just as the Present and Perfect Participles, to express
subordinate relations.
Peculiar is the free use of it in Sentences of Design, and especially
428 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.
noticeable the compactness gained by the employment of it in Condi-
tional Relations.
670. In later Latin, the Future Participle (active) is used
to represent subordinate relations (438, N.) :
1. Time When.
(Tiberius) traiecturus (= com traiecturus esset) BhSnum commeatum non
transmlsit, SUET., Tib,, 18; when Tiberius was about to cross the Rhine,
he did not send over the provisions.
2. Cause Why.
Deridiculo fait senez foedissimae adulationis tantum infamia usurus,
TAC., Ann., in. 57, 3; a butt of ridicule was the old man, as infamy
ivas the only gain he would make by his foul fawning. Antiochus sgcu-
rus dS bello Romano erat tamquam non transiturls in Asiam Romania,
L., xxxvi. 41, 1 (602, N. 3).
3. Purpose (usually after a verb of Motion).
(Maroboduus) misit legates ad Tiberium oraturos auxilia, TAG., Ann. n.
46 (438, N.). Consul Larisam est profectus, ibi de sumnia belli consultatu-
rus, L., xxxvi. 14, 5.
NOTE. — The Pr. Participle is sometimes used in a similar sense, but the Purpose is
only an inference :
L6gatl venSrunt nuntiantes Asiae quoque civitatSs sollicitarl, L., xxxi. 2,
1 ; envoys came with the announcement that the states of Asia also were tampered with.
4. Condition and Concession.
(1) Protasis.
Dedituris se Hannibal! fuisse accersendum Romanorum praesidium 1 L.,
xxni. 44, 2 ; if they had been ready to surrender to Hannibal, would
they have had to send for a Roman garrison ? (= si dediturl foissent,
6. E. : si dSditurl fuerunt.)
(2) Apodosis.
Quatixmt arma, rupturl imperium nl ducantur, TAC., H., in. 19, 3;
they clash their arms, ready to break orders, if they be not led forward.
Librum misl exigent! tibi, missurus etsl non exegisses, PLIN., Ep.. in. 13,
1 ; I have sent you the book, as you exacted it, although I should have
sent it even if you had not exacted it.
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.
671. The Latin language allows greater freedom in the
arrangement of words than the English. This freedom is,
of course, due to its greater wealth of inflections.
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 429
Two elements enter into the composition of a Latin Sen-
tence, governing to some extent its arrangement : Gram-
mar and Ehetoric.
672. i. Grammatical arrangement has for its object clear-
ness. It shows the ideas in the order of development in the
mind of the speaker. By Grammatical arrangement the
sentence grows under the view.
2. Ehetorical arrangement has for its objects Emphasis
and Ehythm. It presents a sentence already developed in
such a way that the attention is directed to certain parts of
it especially.
(a) Emphasis is produced :
1. By reversing the ordinary position.
2. By approximation of similars or opposites.
3. By separation.
In all sentences Beginning and End are emphatic points. In long
sentences the Means as well as the Extremes are the points of emphasis.
(b) Rhythm. — Much depends on the rhythmical order of words, for
which the treatises of the ancients are to be consulted. Especially
avoided are poetic rhythms. So, for example, the Dactyl and Spondee,
or close of an Hexameter at the end of a period.
673. Two further principles seem to underlie the arrange-
ment of Latin sentences : (a) that of the ascending construc-
tion ; (b) that of the descending construction. In the
ascending construction, which is more common, the prin-
cipal word is placed last, and the subordinate ones, in the
order of their importance, precede. In the descending con-
struction the reverse is the process. The descending con-
struction is regular in definitions.
674. RULE I. — The most simple arrangement of a sentence
is as follows :
1. The Subject and its Modifiers.
2. The Predicate and its Modifiers.
i. Dionysius tyrannus, Syracusis expulsus, 2. Corinth! pueros docSbat,
C.,Tusc., m. 12, 27(665).
Rhetorical positions :
Potentes sequitur invidia, QUINT., iv. 1, 14 (477, N. 4). Nobls non satis-
43O ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.
facit ipse DSmosthenSs, Cf. C., Or., 29, 104 (552, R. i). Dlscrlptus (erat)
populus c§nsu, ordinibus, aetatibus, C., Leg., in. ig, 44 (397). Intra
moenia sunt host6s, S., C., 52, 35 (477).
REMARK. — The modifiers of the predicate stand in the order of their
importance. The following arrangement is common :
i. Place, Time, Cause, or Means. 2. Indirect Object. 3. Direct
Object. 4. Adverb. 5. Verb.
NOTE. — The postponement of the subject is rare and always for definite reasons in
the classical period ; later it becomes a mannerism, especially in the elder PLINY ; to a
lees degree in NEPOS and LIVT.
675. EULE II. — Interrogative Sentences begin with the
interrogative, subordinate clauses with the leading particle
or relative.
Quis eum diligat quern metuat ? C., Lael., 15, 53 (629). Postquam Caesar
pervgnit obsides poposcit, CAES., B.G., i. 27, 3 (561). Si sptritum ducit
vivit, C., Inv., i. 46, 86 (595). QuI timgre dgsierint odisse incipient, TAG.,
Agr., 32 (567).
Rhetorical position :
[Naturam] si sequSmur ducem, numquam aberrabiinus, C., Off., l. 28,
100 (595). DS futuris rebus etsi semper difficile est dicere, tamen interdum
coniectura possls accedere, C., Fam., vi. 4, 1 (604). [Cat5] mirarl sS aiebat
quod non rlderet haruspex, haruspicem com vldisset, C., Div., n. 24, 51
(567).
676. RULE III. — An Adjective usually precedes, but often
follows, the word to which it belongs ; a dependent Genitive
usually follows the governing word ; so too does a word in
Apposition.
Saepe magna indoles virtutis priusqnam rel publicae pr odesse potuisset ez-
stincta est, C., Ph., v. 17, 47 (577). S6nsum oculorum praecipit animus,
QUINT., vi. 2, 6 (540).
Rhetorical position :
[lacerates] queritur plus honoris corporum quam animorum virtutibus
darl, QUINT., in. 8, 9 (542, R.). [Ager], cum multos annos quievit, uberiSres
efiferre fruggs solet, C., Br., 4, 16 (567). VerSmur nS parum hie liber
mellis et absintb.il multum habere videatur, QUINT., in. i, 5 (550).
REMARKS. — i. The demonstrative pronouns regularly precede; the
possessives regularly follow.
Veremur n6 hie liber absinthil multum habere videatur, QUINT., 111.
i, 5 (550), Torquatus fflium suum necarl iussit, S., C., 52, 30 (540).
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 431
Rhetorical position:
Becordare tempus illud, cum pater Curio maergns iacebat in lecto, ('.,
Ph., ii. 18, 45 (580). Osculatur tigrim suus custos, SEN., E.M., 85, 41
(309, 2).
2. Ordinals regularly follow, Cardinals regularly precede the sub-
stantive.
3. Many expressions have become fixed formulae : so titles, proper
names, and the like ; see 288.
Facinus est vincire civem Romanum, C., Verr., v. 66, 170 (535).
4. The titles r6x, imperator, etc., frequently precede the proper name
with which they are in apposition.
5. New modifiers of either element may be inserted, prefixed, or
added :
Catonem vldl in bibliotheca sedentem multis circumfusum Stoicorum
libris, C., Fin., Hi. 2, 7 (536). Saepe raagna indoles virtutis priusquam
rel publicae prodesse potuisset exstincta est, C., Ph., v. 17, 47 (577). At
videte hominis intolerabilem audaciam, C. , J)om. , 44, 115 (488) . (Arictides)
interfuit pugnae naval! apud Salamina, XKP., HI. 2, 1.
NOTES.— 1. The tendency in Latin was to reverse the Indo-Germanic rule by which
an attributive adjective and a dependent Genitive preceded the governing word. But in
early Latin the adjective still holds its place more often before its substantive, while the
Genitive has already succumbed for the most part to the tendency. In the classical
period the adjective is more often used after its substantive. But neither position
can be strictly called rhetorical. The same is true of the possessive pronoun.
2. The original force of a following adjective or Genitive was restrictive or apposi-
tional, while, when it preceded, it formed a close compound with its substantive ; thus,
bonus homo, a good man (one idea) ; homo bonus, a man (one idea) who is good
(another idea). In classical Latin this distinction is no longer inevitable, though it is
often essential.
677. EULE IV. — Adverbs are commonly put next to their
verb (before it when it ends a sentence), and immediately
before their adjective or adverb.
Zenonem cum Athenis essem audiebam frequenter ,C.,N.D., i. 21, 59
(585). Caedl discipulos ininime velim, QUINT., i. 3, 13 (257). Vix culquam
persuadsbatur Graecia omnl c6ssur5s (RomanSs), L., xxxin. 32, 3 (546, R. i).
1 Risus | interdnm ita repente erumpit ut eum cupientes tenere nequeamus,
C., Or., n. 58, 235 (609). .
Rhetorical positions :
[Iram] bene Ennius initium dlxit Insaniae, C., Tusc., iv. 23, 52(440).
Saepe magna indoles virtutis priusquam rel publicae prodesse potuisset ex-
stincta est, C., Ph., v. 17, 47 (577).
REMARKS. — i. Fere, paene, prope, usually follow:
NeinS fere saltat sobrius nisi forte Insanit, C., Mur., 6, 13 (591, R. 4).
2. Negatives always precede, see 448.
432 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.
NOTE.— The separation of adverbs from their adjectives is rare, except in the case of
tam and quam, which PLAUTUS, TERENCE, CICERO, and later authors often separate,
e. ff., by a preposition : tam ab tenul exitio. Hyperbaton with other adverbs is rare.
678. KTJLE V. — Prepositions regularly precede their case
(413).
A recta cSnscientia traversum unguem n5n oportet discedere, C., Ait.,
xiii. 20, 4 (328, i).
REMARKS. — i. On versus, tenus, and the postposition of cum in com-
bination with the personal pronouns and the relative, see 418, R. i.
2. Monosyllabic prepositions are not unfrequently put between the
adjective and substantive : magna cum cura. See 413, R. 2.
Less frequently they are placed between the Gen. and substantive ;
except when the relative is employed.
3. Dissyllabic prepositions are sometimes put after their case (Ana-
strophe), especially after a relative or demonstrative : most frequently
contra, inter, propter. So also adverbs. See 413, R. i.
4. The preposition may be separated from its case by a Gen. or an
adverb (413, R. 3) : ad AppI ClaudI senectutein accgdebat etiam ut caecus
esset, C., Cat.Jtf., 6, 16 (553, 4).
5. Monosyllabic prepositions, such as cum, ex, d6, post, sometimes ap-
pend the enclitics -que, -ve, -ne, as, exque iis, and from them. Usually,
however, the enclitics join the dependent substantive : in patriamque
rediit, and returned to his country. See 413, N. 3.
On the position of per, see 413, N. 2.
679. EULE VI. — Particles vary.
Enim commonly takes the second, seldom the third place ; nam and
namque are regularly prepositive. See 498, N. 1.
Erg5 in the syllogism precedes, elsewhere follows ; igitur is com-
monly second or third ; itaque regularly first. See 502, N. 2 ; 500, R,
Tamen is first, but may follow an emphatic word. See 490.
Etiam usually precedes, quoque always follows. See 478, 479.
Quidem and dSmum (at length) follow the word to which they
belong.
680. EULE VII. — A word that belongs to more than one
word regularly stands before them all, or after them all,
sometimes after the first (291).
Ariovistus respondit multls s6se nobilibus prlncipibusque populi RomanI
gratum esse facturum, CAES., E.G., i. 44, 12 (657, 9). [IsocratSs] queritur
plus honoris corporum quam animorum virtutibus darl, QUINT., in. 8, 9 (542,
R.). Longum est muloruni persequl utilitates et asinorum, C., N.D., u.
64, 159 (254, R. i).
ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES. 433
681. EULE VIII. — Words of kindred or opposite meaning
are often put side by side for the sake of complement or
contrast.
Manus manum lavat, one hand washes the other. [Cato] mlrarl se
aiebat quod non rideret haruspex, haruspicera cum vldisset, C., Div., II.
24, 51 (567). Emit morte immortalitatem, QUINT., ix. 3, 71 (404).
682. KULE IX. — Contrasted Pairs. — When pairs are con-
trasted, the second is put in the same order as the first, but
often in inverse order. The employment of the same order
is called Anaphora (repetition). The inverse order is called
Chiasmus, or crosswise position, and gives alternate stress.
The principle is of wide application, not merely in the sim-
ple sentence but also in the period.
Same order (Anaphora).
Fortuna (i) vestra (2) facit ut Irae (i) meae (2) temper em, L., xxxvi.
35, 3 (553, i). Malo te sapiens (i) hostis (2) metuat quam stulti (i) cIvSs
(2) laudent, L., xxu. 39, 20(546, R. 2).
Inverse order (Chiasmus).
Ante videmus (i) fulgorem (2) quam sonum (2) audiamus (i), SEN., N. Q.,
ii. 12, 6 (577). Farvi stint foris (i) arma (2) nisi est consilium (2) doml
(i), C., Off., i. 22, 76 (411, R. 2).
REMARK. — Chiasmus is from the Greek letter X (chi):
1. Foris •**- 2. arma
2. consilium -"• i. doml.
683. Poetical Peculiarities. — In the poets we find many varieties
of arrangement of substantive and adjective, designed to draw especial
attention to the idea or to colour the verse. These occur chiefly in the
Hexameter and Pentameter, but to a lesser degree also in other meas-
ures. Thus the substantive and adjective are put either at the end of
each hemistich, or at the beginning of each hemistich, or one is at the
end of the first and the other at the beginning of the second.
Cerberus et nullas hodiS petat improbus umbras \ et iaceat tacitd lapsa
catena sera, PROP., iv. (v.) n, 25. Puniceo stabis suras evincta cothurnd,
V., EC., 7, 32. lie similem vestrls moribus esse putas1? PROP., n. (in.)
29 (27), 32.
ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES.
684. A period is a compound sentence with one or more
subordinate clauses, in which sentence the meaning is kept
suspended to the close.
28
434 ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES.
685. Latin periods may be divided into two classes :
1. Responsive or Apodotic, in which a Protasis has an
Apodosis.
2. Intercalary or Enthetic, in which the various items are
inserted in their proper place between Subject and Predicate.
Ut saepe homines aegri morbo gravl, cum aestu febrlque iactantur,
si aquam gelidam biberunt, primo relevarl videntur, delude multo
gravius vehementiusque affllctantur : sic hie morbus, qul est in re pub-
lica, relevatus istlus poena, vehementius, reliquls vivls, ingravescet,
C., Cat., I. 13, 31 (Apodotic).
Catuvolcus, rex dlmidiae partis Eburonum, qul una cum Ambiorige
consilium inierat, aetate iam confectus, cum labOrein aut belli aut fugae
ferre non posset, omnibus precibus detestatus Ambiorigem, qul eius
consilil auctor fuisset, taxo, cuius magna in Gallia GermaniSque copia
est, s6 exanimavit, CAES., B.G., vi. 31, 5 (Enthetic).
686. NAGELSBACH'S careful study of the subject has led to the fol-
lowing results. The simplest period is composed of one subordinate (a)
and one principal (A) clause ; the principal varieties are : (i) a : A,
where the principal clause follows the subordinate ; (2) A (a) A, where
the subordinate clause is inserted within the principal clause ; (3) A \ a,
where the principal clause precedes the subordinate clause ; (4) a (A) a,
where the principal clause is inserted within the subordinate clause.
When two subordinate clauses (a, b), independent of each other, are
used, the forms are: (5) a : A \ b; (6)a:A(b)a; (j)A(a)A \ b; (8)
A (a) A (b) A ; (9) a : (b : A). If the dependent clauses are of different
degree (a, a, A), that is, one depending upon the other, some fifteen
additional forms are allowable.
Some examples are :
a (A) a : illorum vid5s qnam niteat oratio, C., Fin., iv. 3, 5. a : (b : A) :
cur nolint, etiamsl taceant, satis dicunt, C., Div. in Caec., 6, 21. a : a : A :
quid agatur, cum aperuero, facile erit statuere, C., Ph., v. 2, 6. a : A \ a:
illud quid sit, sclre cupio, quod iacis obscure, C., Alt., n. 7, 4. a | a (A) a:
n6s utl exspectar6mus sS, rellquit qul rogaret, VARRO, R.R., I. 2, 32.
A | a (a) a : mando tib! plans, totum ut videas cuius modi sit, C., Alt., I.
12,2.
687. Periods are also divided into Historical and Oratorical. The
former are, as a rule, simple. The most common form is a : A, i.e.,
where a subordinate clause is followed by a leading clause : Id ubi
dixisset hastam in hostium fines emittebat, L., I. 42, 13. Another com-
mon period, developed and much liked by LIVY, and later by TACITUS,
was a :a : A, consisting of (i) a participial clause ; (2) a clause
introduced by a conjunction; (3) the principal clause. Cf. TAC., Ann.,
FIGURES. 435
n. 69, 3, dStentus ubi . . . accgpit plebem proturbat. Historians,
having much occasion for description, are also prone to use the
descending period, i.e., the form in which the principal clause precedes.
So especially NEPOS. LIVY likes also to use two independent sub-
ordinate clauses asyndetically.
The Oratorical periods are much more diverse and complicated,
owing to the greater variety of effects at which they aim. We find,
however, the ascending structure, where the emphasis is continually
ascending until it culminates at the end, more common.
See an excellent example in C., Imp., 5, 11 :
Vos eum regem inultum esse patieminl qul iSgatum popull RomanI
consularem VINCULIS AC VEEBERIBUS ATQUE OMNI SUPPLICIO EXCRUCIA-
TUM NECAVIT ?
FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC.
688. Ellipsis is the omission of some integral part of the
thought, such as the substantive of the adjective (204, N. 1),
the copula of the predicate (209), the verb of the adverb.
Uncle domo? V., A., vin. 114 (391, R. 2).
EEMARK. — When the ellipsis is indefinite, do not attempt to supply
it. The figure is still much abused by commentators in the explana-
tion of grammatical phenomena.
689. Brachylogy (breviloquentia) is a failure to repeat an
element which is often to be supplied in a more or less
modified form.
Tamfellxess5squamformosissima(=es) vellem, Ov., Am., I. 8, 27(302).
690. Zeugma or Syllepsis is a junction of two words under
the same regimen, or with the same modifier, although the
common factor strictly applies but to one.
Mantis ac suppliers voces ad Tiberium tendens, TAG., Ann., n. 29, 2;
stretching out Jtands and (uttering) suppliant cries to Tiberius.
691. Aposidpesis is a rhetorical breaking off before the
close of the sentence, as in the famous Vergilian duos
ego
692. Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words.
693. Enallage is a shift from one form to another : vos 6
Calliope precor, V., A., ix. 525.
436 PIGUKES.
Hypallage is an interchange in the relations of words :
dare classibus austros, V., A., m. 61.
694. Oxymoron is the use of words apparently contradic-
tory of each other : cum tacent clamant, C., Cat., i. 8, 21
(582).
695. Synecdoche is the use of the part for the whole, or the
reverse : tectum for domum, puppis for navis, mucro for gladius,
etc.
696. Hyperbaton, Trajection, is a violent displacement of
words. Lydia die per omnes te deos oro, H., 0., i. 8, 1 (413,
N. 2).
697. Anacoluthon,\or want of sequence, occurs when the
scheme of a sentence is changed in its course.
698. jlendiadys ( I v Sia Svoiv) consists in giving an analysis
. instead of a complex, in putting two substantives connected
by a copulative conjunction, instead of one substantive and
an adjective or attributive genitive.
Vulgus et multitude, the common herd. Via et ratiS (C., Verr., i. 16,
47), scientific method. VI et armis, by force of arms.
So two verbs may be translated by an adverb and a verb : fundl
fugSrique, to be utterly routed.
699. Constructio Praegnans. So-called cdnstructid prae-
gnans is nothing but an extended application of the accusa-
tive of the Inner Object (Object Effected). The result is
involved, not distinctly stated.
Exitium inrltat, Cf. TAC., Ann., xiii. i, 1 ; he provokes destruction (ad
ezitium inrltat).
700. Litotes, or Understatement, is the use of an expres-
sion by which more is meant than meets the ear. This is
especially common with the Negative.
Non indecoro pulvere sordid!, H., 0., n. i, 22 (449, R. 2).
PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 437
PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
1. The Verb agrees with its subject in number and person (211).
2. The Adjective agrees with its subject in gender, number, and case
(211).
3. The common Predicate of two or more subjects is put in the
Plural (285) ; when the genders are different, it takes the strongest
gender or the nearest (286) ; when the persons are different, it takes
the first in preference to the second, the second in preference to the
third (287).
4. The common Attribute of two or more substantives agrees with
the nearest, rarely with the most important (290).
5. The Predicate substantive agrees with its subject in case (211).
6. The Appositive agrees with its subject in case ; if possible, also in
number and person (321).
7. The Relative agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and
person (614).
8. Disproportion is indicated by the comparative with quam pr5,
quam ut, quam qul (298).
9. In comparing two qualities, use either magis quam with the posi-
tive, or a double comparative (299).
10. Superlative's denoting order and sequence are often used parti-
tively and then usually precede their substantive (291, R. 2).
n. The Genitive forms mel, tul, sul, nostrl, vestrl, are used mainly
as objective genitives ; nostrum and vestrum as partitive (304, 2).
12. The Reflexive is used regularly when reference is made to the
grammatical subject ; frequently when reference is made to the actual
subject (309).
13. The Reflexive is used of the principal subject, when reference is
made to the thought or will of that subject; hence, in Infinitive clauses,
or Indirect Questions, in Sentences of Design, and in Oratio Obliqua
(521).
14. The Possessive Pronoun is used instead of the Possessive or Sub-
jective Genitive in the First and Second Persons (362, 364).
15. The Appositive to a possessive pronoun is in the Genitive (321,
R. 2).
16. With words of Inclination and Disinclination, Knowledge and
Ignorance, Order and Position, Time and Season, the adjective is usu-
ally employed for the adverb (325, R. 6).
17. The Indicative, not the Subjunctive, is used in expressions of
Possibility, Power, Obligation, and Necessity (254, R. i).
438 PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
1 8. The Potential of the Present or Future is the Present or Perfect
Subjunctive (257) ; the Potential of the Past is the Imperfect Subjunc-
tive (258).
ig. The Optative Subjunctive may be used to express a Wish (260),
an Asseveration (262), a Command (263), or a Concession (264).
20. The First Imperative looks forward to immediate, the Second
to contingent, fulfilment (268).
21. The Negative of the Imperative is regularly n5ll with the Infin-
itive ; sometimes nS with the Perfect Subjunctive (270, R. 2), or cav8
with the Subjunctive (271) is also used.
22. The Infinitive, with or without a subject, may be treated as a
neuter subject (422), object (423), or predicate (424).
23. The Infinitive is used as the object of verbs of Will, Power,
Duty, Habit, Inclination, Resolve, Continuance, End, etc. (423).
24. The Accusative and Infinitive is used as the object of verbs of
Will and Desire (532).
25. The Accusative and Infinitive is used as the object of verbs of
Emotion (533).
26. The Accusative and Infinitive is used in Exclamation (534).
27. After verbs of Saying, Showing, Believing, and Perceiving, the
Present Infinitive expresses action contemporary with that of the gov-
erning verb, the Perfect, action prior to it, the Future, action future to
it (530).
28. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used chiefly
after substantives and adjectives that require a complement (428).
29. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used mainly in
post-classical Latin after words of Fitness and Function ; also after
words of Capacity and Adaptation, and to express Design (429).
30. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after verbs
of Giving and Taking, Sending and Leaving, etc., to indicate Design
(430).
31. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used to denote
Means and Cause, rarely Manner (431).
32. The Supine in -urn is used chiefly after verbs of Motion to
express Design (435).
33. The Supine in -fi is used chiefly with adjectives to indicate
Respect (436).
34. The Present Participle denotes continuance, the Perfect, comple-
tion, at the time of the leading verb (282).
35. The Future Participle is used in post-Ciceronian Latin to express
Design (438, N.).
PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 439
36. The Participle is used after verbs of Perception and Represen-
tation to express the actual condition of the object (536).
37. The Perfect Participle passive is used after verbs of Causation
and Desire, to denote impatience of anything except entire fulfilment
(587).
38. The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (203).
39. Verbs of Seeming, Becoming, with the passive of verbs of Mak-
ing, Choosing, Showing, Thinking, and Calling, take two Nomina-
tives, one of the subject, one of the predicate (206).
40. With passive verbs of Saying, Showing, Believing, and Per-
ceiving, the Accusative subject of the Infinitive becomes the Nomina-
tive subject of the leading verb (528).
41. The Appositional Genitive is used after v5x, nomen, verbum,
rSs, etc. (361, i).
42. The Epexegetical Genitive (or Genitive of Explanation) is used
after genus, vitium, culpa, etc. (361, 2).
43. The Possessive Genitive is used of the Third Person to denote
possession (362).
44. The Subjective Genitive is used of the subject of the action indi-
cated by the substantive (363, i) ; the Objective Genitive of the object
of that action (363, 2).
45. Essential or permanent qualities are put in the Genitive,
always with an adjective (365); external and transient qualities in the
Ablative, always with an adjective (400). See No. 82.
46. The Genitives of Quality and Possession may be used as predi-
cates (366).
47. The Partitive Genitive stands for the whole to which a part
belongs (367).
48. Adjectives of Fulness and Want, of Knowledge and Ignorance,
of Desire and Disgust, of Participation and Power, may take the Gen-
itive (374). Also some present participles used as adjectives, and in
later Latin some verbals in -ax (375).
49. Verbs of Reminding, Remembering, and Forgetting take usu-
ally the Genitive (376) ; but sometimes the Accusative, especially of
things (376, R.).
50. Impersonal verbs of Emotion take the Accusative of the Person
Who Feels, and the Genitive of the Exciting Cause (371).
51. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Condemning, and Acquitting,
take the Genitive of the Charge (378).
52. Verbs of Rating and Buying take the Genitive of the General,
the Ablative of the Particular Value (379, 404). See No. 87.
44O PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
53. Interest and Refert take the Genitive of the Person, rarely of the
Thing concerned (381).
54. The Indirect Object is put in the Dative (345).
55. Verbs of Advantage and Disadvantage, Bidding and Forbid-
ding, Pleasure and Displeasure, Yielding and Resisting, take the
Dative (346).
56. Many intransitive verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter,
ob, post, prae, sub, and super may take a Dative; transitive verbs also
an Accusative besides (347).
57. Verbs of Giving and Putting take a Dative and Accusative, or
an Accusative and Ablative (348).
58. The Dative is used with esse to denote possession (349).
59. The Dative is used of the Person Interested in the action (350).
60. The Ethical Dative is used of the personal pronouns only (351).
61. The Dative of Reference is used of the Person to whom a state-
ment is referred (352).
62. The Dative of Agent is used with the Perfect passive, the
Gerund, and the Gerundive (354).
63. The Dative may denote the Object For Which in combination
with the Person To Whom (355).
64. Adjectives of Friendliness, Fulness, Likeness, Nearness, with
their opposites, take the Dative (359).
65. Active transitive verbs take the Accusative case (330).
66. Many intransitive verbs, mostly those of Motion, compounded
with ad, ante, circum, con, in, inter, ob, per, praeter, sub, subter, super,
and trans, take the Accusative ; transitive verbs thus compounded may
have two Accusatives (331).
67. Intransitive verbs may take an Accusative of similar form or
meaning (333, 2).
68. The Accusative may express Extent in Degree, Space, or Time
(334-6).
69. Names of Towns and Small Islands are put in the Accusative of
Place Whither; so also domus and rus (337). See No. 74 and 92.
70. Verbs meaning to Inquire, Require, Teach, and Conceal, take
two Accusatives, one of the Person, one of the Thing (339).
71. Verbs of Naming, Making, Taking, Choosing, and Showing,
take two Accusatives of the same Person or Thing (34(5).
72. The subject of the Infinitive is regularly in the Accusative (420).
73. The Accusative may be used in Exclamations (343).
74. Place Where is denoted by the Ablative, usually with in (385) ;
PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 44!
Place Whence by the Ablative, usually with ex, d6, or ab (390).
Names of Towns and Small Islands omit the prepositions (386, 391).
See No. €9 and 92.
75. Attendance is denoted by the Ablative with cum (392).
76. Time When or Within Which is denoted by the Ablative (393).
77. Origin or Descent is denoted by the Ablative with or without
ex and d6 (395).
78. Material is denoted by the Ablative with ex (396).
79. The Point of View or Respect is denoted by the Ablative (397).
80. Comparatives without quam are followed by the Ablative (398).
81. Manner is denoted by the Ablative regularly with an adjective
or cum (399).
82. External and transient qualities are denoted by the Ablative,
always with an adjective (400) ; essential and permanent qualities by
the Genitive, always with an adjective (365). See No. 45.
83. Cause, Means, and Instrument, are denoted by the Ablative
(401, 408).
84. The Agent is denoted by the Ablative with & (ab) (401).
85. The Standard of Measurement is denoted by the Ablative (402),
86. Measure of Difference is put in the Ablative (403).
87. Definite Price is put in the Ablative (404) ; General Price in the
Genitive (379). See No. 52.
88. Verbs of Depriving and Pilling, of Plenty and Want, take the
Ablative (405).
89. The Ablative is used with opus and usus (406).
90. TTtor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor take the Ablative (407).
91. The Ablative, combined with a participle, serves to modify the
verbal predicate of a sentence: Ablative Absolute (409).
92. Names of Towns and Small Islands of the First and Second
Declensions are put in the Locative of the Place Where (411). See
No. 69 and 74.
93. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs (439).
94. A question for information merely is introduced by -ne (454).
95. A question that expects the answer yes is introduced by nonne
(455).
96. A question that expects the answer no is introduced by num
(456).
97. The Deliberative Question is in the Subjunctive (265).
98. The Indirect Question is in the Subjunctive (467).
442 PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
99. Sequence of Tenses. Principal tenses are ordinarily followed by
Principal tenses, Historical by Historical (509).
100. After a Future or Future Perfect, the Future relation is
expressed by the Present, the Future Perfect by the Perfect Subjunc-
tive (514). After other tenses the Future relation is expressed by the
Active Periphrastic Present and Imperfect Subjunctive (515).
101. In Oratio Obllqua all subordinate tenses follow the general law
of sequence (516).
102. Quod, the fact that, in that, is used with the Indicative to
introduce explanatory clauses after Verbs of Adding and Dropping,
Doing and Happening, and demonstratives (525).
103. Quod, quia, quoniam, and quando take the Indicative in Direct
Discourse, the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, to express Cause
(540, 541).
104- Quod is used after verbs of Emotion with the Indicative in Di-
rect, the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, to give the Ground (542).
105. Final Sentences have the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive
with ut or nS (545).
106. Complementary Final Clauses are used after verbs of Will and
Desire (546).
107. Positive verbs of Preventing, Refusing, Forbidding, and Be-
waring, may take nS with the Subjunctive (548).
108. Verbs of Preventing and Refusing may take quominus with
the Subjunctive (549). See No. 112.
109. Verbs of Fear are followed by nS or ut (nS n5n) and all tenses
of the Subjunctive (550).
no. Consecutive Sentences have the Subjunctive with ut and ut n5n
(552).
in. Verbs of Effecting have the Subjunctive with ut and nS, or ut
n5n (553).
112. Negatived or Questioned verbs of Preventing, Hindering, etc.,
of Doubt and Uncertainty, may be followed by the Subjunctive with
quln (555). See No. 108.
113. A Consecutive Clause with ut is often used to give the contents
or character of a preceding substantive, adjective, or pronoun (557).
114. Ut, ut primum, cum, cum primum, ubi, ubi primum, simulac,
simul atque, and postquam take the Perfect Indicative, in the sense of
as soon as; but the Imperfect of Overlapping Action, and the Pluper-
fect when a definite interval is given (561, 562, 563).
115. When two actions are repeated contemporaneously, both are
put in the Indicative in tenses of continuance (566).
PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 443
116. When one action is repeated before another, the antecedent
action is put in the Perfect, Pluperfect, or Future Perfect, the subse-
quent in the Present, Imperfect, or Future, according to the relation
(567).
117. Dum, donee, quoad, quamdiu, so long as, while, take the Indica-
tive of all tenses (569).
1 1 8. Dam, while, while yet, takes the Present Indicative after all
tenses (570).
119. Dum, donee, quoad, until, take the Present, Historical Present,
Historical Perfect, and Future Perfect Indicative (571).
120. Dum, donee, quoad, until, take the Subjunctive when Suspense
or Design is involved (572).
121. Dum, modo, and dummodS, */ only, provided only, take the
Present and Imperfect Subjunctive in Conditional Wishes (573).
122. Antequam and priusquam take the Indicative Present, Perfect,
and Future Perfect when the limit is stated as a fact; the Subjunctive
when the action is expected, contingent, designed, or subordinate
(574, 577).
123. Temporal cum, when, is used with all tenses of the Indicative
to designate merely temporal relations (580).
124. Historical cum, when, is used with the Imperfect and Pluper-
fect Subjunctive to give the temporal circumstances under which an
action took place (585).
125. Causal and Concessive cum, when, whereas, although, are used
with all tenses of the Subjunctive (586, 587).
126. The Logical Condition has usually some form of the Indica-
tive in both Protasis and Apodosis (595).
127. The Ideal Condition has usually the Present or Perfect
Subjunctive, less often the Imperfect or Pluperfect, in both clauses
(596).
128. The Unreal Condition has the Imperfect Subjunctive of oppo-
sition to present, the Pluperfect of opposition to past fact (597).
129. Ut si, ac si, quasi, quam si, tamquam, tamquam si, velut, and
velut si, introduce a comparison in the Subjunctive. The tense follows
the rule of sequence (602).
130. Concessive clauses may be introduced by etsl, etiamsi, tametsl,
with the Indicative or Subjunctive (604); by quamquam, with the
Indicative (605) ; by quamvis, with the Subjunctive (606).
131. Indefinite and generic relatives usually have the Indicative
(625) ; so explanatory qui, when equivalent to quod (626).
132. The Subjunctive is used in Relative Clauses that form a part
PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
of the utterance of another ; so in Oratio Obliqua and Final Clauses
(628).
133. Relative sentences that depend on Infinitives or Subjunctives,
and form an integral part of the thought, are put in the Subjunctive
by Attraction (629).
134. Relative sentences are put in the Subjunctive of Design when
qui = ut (final) is (630).
135. Relative sentences are put in the Subjunctive of Tendency
when qui = ut (consecutive) is ; so after dignus, indlgnus, idoneus, aptus,
etc.; after an indefinite antecedent; after comparatives with quam (631).
136. Comparative sentences after words of Likeness and Unlike-
ness may be introduced by atque or ac (643).
137. Comparative sentences after comparatives are introduced by
quam (644).
138. In Oratio Obliqua, Principal Clauses are put in the Infinitive,
except Interrogatives and Imperatives, which are put in the Subjunc-
tive ; Subordinate clauses are put in the Subjunctive (650, 651, 652).
PROSODY.
701. PROSODY treats of Quantity and Versification.
REMARKS. — i. Prosody originally meant Accent. Latin Accent is
regulated by Quantity, and as classical Latin versification is also quan-
titative, Prosody is loosely used of both quantity and versification.
2. In the earliest Latin the Accent was not regulated by Quantity,
but was on the initial syllable (15, N.). This often resulted in
(a) The disappearance of the vowel (8, 2) in the antepenult or pro-antepenult ; this
occurs especially in Greek words, but also in some common Latin words : Poludeuces,
FoldeucSs, Polluces, Pollux ; balineion, balineum, balneum, bath ; maximus,
greatest, for magisimos ; optumus, best, for opitumns, etc.
(b) The shortening of a long penult (8). This was still going on in the time of
PLAUTUS, and occurs here and there in the poets : anchora, anchor, from ankura ; so
pgiero, I swear falsely, for periurO ; chorea, dance, from choreia, etc.
(c) The weakening (8) of the antepenult, sometimes also of the penult, both in Greek
words and Latin : Massilia from Massalia ; beni- and mail- for bene and male in
composition ; -hibeo for habeo in composition ; and a few others, as -cido for caedo
in composition, etc.
QUANTITY.
702. KULE I. — A syllable is said to be long by nature when
it contains a long vowel or diphthong : 6, vae, leges, saevae.
REMARKS. — i. (a) A vowel before -gm, -gn, -nf, -ns is long by nature ;
(b) a vowel before -nt, -nd is short by nature.
EXCEPTIONS :
(a) Egnatius, Theognis, and some Greek words in -egma, as phlegma,
phlegm ; but pegma.
(b) Contio (for coventi5), assembly ; igntaculum, ientatio, breakfast ;
nuntius, messenger; qulntus, fifth; and Greek substantives in -us, -untis,
-5n, -ontis ; CharCndas, Epammondas ; also nundinae (noven-d-), market
day; nondum, not yet ; prSndo, I seize; quindecim, fifteen ; rendo, I sell;
undecim, eleven ; vlndgmia, vintage.
2. Inchoative verbs have vowel before -so long by nature ; discs, 7
learn.
3. Noteworthy are the following : quartus, fourth ; qulnque, five, and
its derivatives ; vlgintl, twenty ; mille, thousand, and its derivatives.
44^ QUANTITY.
4. In verbs the quantity of the Present Stem is generally retained
throughout before two consonants (except -ns).
Except dlc5, 1 say ; Supine, dictum ; duco, / lead ; Supine, ductum ;
and their derivatives, like dictio, etc.
5. Noteworthy are the following : ago, / drive, 5gl, actum ; emo, /
buy, Sml, emptum ; frango, / break, frggl, fractum ; fungor, / perform,
functus ; iubeo, I order, iussi, iussum ; iungo, I join, iunxl, iunctum; lego,
I read, legl, lectum ; pango, / fix, pactum ; rego, / govern, rexl, rectum ;
sancio, / sanction, sanxl, sanctum, sancltum ; struo, J pile up, struzl,
structum ; tango, / touch, tactum ; tego, / cover, t6xi, tSctum ; traho, /
draw, traxi, tractum; ungo, / anoint, unxl, unctum; vinco, I conquer,
vixi, victum.
6. In verbs, a vowel resulting from syncope is long before ss, st(131).
Also, perhaps, I before s and t in syncopated Pf . forms of Ire and petere.
NOTE.— On the method of distinguishing long vowels on inscriptions, see 12, i, N.
703. KULE II — A syllable is said to be long ly position
(12, 2) when a short vowel is followed by two or more con-
sonants, or a double consonant : ais, collum, castra.
REMARKS. — i. The consonants may be divided between two words :
per mare, in terris ; but when all the consonants are in the second word,
the preceding short syllable commonly remains short, except in the
Thesis (729) of a verse, when it is lengthened : praemia scrlbae.
2. Every vowel sound followed by i consonant (j) is long (except in
the compounds of iugum, yoke). This is due sometimes to natural
length of the vowel, sometimes to compensation : Gains from Gavins,
peiero for periuro ; but biiugus, two-horse.
NOTE.— In compounds of iacere, to throw, the i is often omitted, and the preceding
vowel lengthened by compensation ; so conicere ; a short vowel with the i omitted is
not found until OVID'S time.
3. Final s, preceded by a short vowel, is dropped before a consonant
in the older poetry ; often too in LUCRETIUS.
In somnis vidit priu(s) quam sam (= earn) discere coepit. — ENNIUS.
NOTE.— In comic poetry, a short final syllable in s blends with est, and sometimes
with es : opust (= opus est) ; simili's (- similis es).
704. RULE III. — A syllable ending in a short vowel before
a mute, followed by 1 or r, is common (13) : tene-brae, dark-
ness. In early Latin it is regularly short, so, too, when the
mute and liquid begin a word.
REMARKS. — i. The syllable must end in a short vowel : navi-fragus,
ship-wrecking ; melli-fluus, flowing with honey ; but in ab-rump5 the a
is long by position.
QUANTITY. 447
2. In Greek words m and n are included under this rule : TS-cmSssa,
Cy-cnus.
EXCEPTION. — Derivative substantives in abrum, acrum, atrum from
verbs ; as flabra, blasts. Zmaragdos, MART.,V. i i,l, cannot be paralleled.
705. EULE IV. — Every diphthong, and every vowel de-
rived from a diphthong, or contracted from other vowels, is
long (14) : saevos, cruel ; conclude, / shut up (from claudo) ;
imquos, unfair (from aequos) ; cogo, I drive together (from
coigo = con + ago).
EXCEPTION. — Prae in composition is shortened before a vowel until
the time of STATIUS ; prae-ustus, burnt at the point (V., A., vii. 524).
706. RULE V. — One simple vowel before another vowel-
sound, or h, makes a short syllable : deus, God j puer, boy ;
nihil, nothing.
EXCEPTIONS :
1. a in the old Gen. of the First Declension : aural.
2. 6 in -61 of the Fifth Declension, when a vowel precedes '. diSI, but
fidei (63, N. i).
3. a and e before i in proper names in -ius : Gal, PompSl.
4. i in the Gen. form -lus (76, R. 2). Alterms is often shortened,
perhaps even in prose : unlus, ullius, nullius, totius, are found in poetry.
In alius the i is never shortened (alius for aliius).
5. i in fI5 is long, except before er: flo, but fieret and fieri.
6. eheu, Diana, ohe, dins (= divas).
7. Many Greek words : aer, Menelaus, museum, M6d6a.
8. In early Latin many words retain the original length of the
vowel : ais, rSI ; all forms of fI5 ; cluo ; ful and its forms ; pluit, luit,
adnul, etc. Most of the shortened forms also occur, and are more
common.
Quantity of Final Syllables.
A. POLYSYLLABLES.
707. RULE VI. — In words of more than one syllable, final
a, e, and y are short ; i, o, and u are long.
i. a is short : terra, earth ; dona, gifts ; capita, heads.
EXCEPTIONS :
1. Abl. of the First Declension : terra.
2. Voc. of words in as (Aenga), and Greek Nona, in a (Electra).
3. Impv. of First Conjugation : ama.
448 QUANTITY.
4. Most uninflected words : triginta, iuxta, but ita, quia, 6ia. With
puts, for instance, compare cav6 below.
2. e is short.
EXCEPTIONS :
1. Abl. of the Fifth Declension : diS.
2. Impv. of Second Conjugation : monS (but see Note).
3. Most adverbs of Second Declension : rSctS ; but ben6, male, Inferng
(LucR.), maxumg (PLAUT.), probe (PLAUT.), superne (LucR., HOR.),
temerg (PLAUT., TER.).
4. Greek words in 6 (77) : TempS, mel6.
5. Que is thought to be not unfrequently long in the Thesis of early
Saturnians ; so in the hexameter of the classical period if a second
que follows in the Arsis.
NOTE.— Observe that in PLATTTTJS and TERENCE any dissyllabic Iambic impv. may
have the last 6 shortened ; principally cave", habl, iubl, mang, mong, move, tac§,
ten!, val8, vidS. See 716. Later poets also shorten sometimes when the penult is
long ; salve (MART.).
3. y is always short, except in contracted forms : misy
(Dative misy = misyi).
4. i is long : domini, viginti, audi.
EXCEPTIONS :
1. Greek Dat. si : TrSasi.
2. Greek Nona., as sinapi; Voc., as Pan; Dat. Sing, (rarely), as
MinSidi.
3. quasi, nisi, cm (when a dissyllable).
4. i is common in mibi, tibl, sib!, ibi, ubl.
Observe the compounds : ibidem, ibiqne, ubique, ubinam, ubivls, ubi-
cnnque, necubi, utmam, utique, slcuti ; (but utl).
5. o is long : bono, tuto.
EXCEPTIONS :
1. Common in homo; in the Augustan times in leSand many proper
names ; as Sclpio ; in the post- Augustan times in many common sub-
stantives : virgd. NSm5 is found first in OVID, mentis in HORACE.
2. Frequently short in Iambic words in early Latin, especially in
verbs, many of which remained common in the Augustan times, as
vo!5, veto, sci6, petQ, puts, etc.; so less often nescio, desinS, obsecrS, dlxer5,
oderS. From SENECA on, the Gerund may be shortened : amand6.
3. o is usually short in modd, cito, oct6, eg6, ilic6, immd, dud, amb6
(post-classical) ; and in many other words in later poetry.
6. u is always long : cornu, fructu, andltu.
QUANTITY. 449
708. RULE VII. — All final syllables that end in a simple
consonant other than s are short.
EXCEPTIONS :
1. allec, lien, and many Greek substantives.
2. The adverbs and oblique cases of illlc, illuc, istlc, istuc, can
hardly be considered exceptions, as -c is for -ce, and is merely enclitic.
3. Compounds of par : dispar, impar.
4. ilt, petilt, and their compounds.
5. Final -at, -et, -it, were originally long, and as such often occur
in early Latin, and occasionally before a pause in the classical poets.
709. EULE VIII. — Of final syllables in a: as, es, os, are
long ; is, us, ys, short.
i. as is long : Aeneas, servas, amas.
EXCEPTIONS :
1. Greek substantives in as, adis : Areas, Arcadis.
2. Greek Ace. PI., Third Declension : hgrSas, Arcadas.
3. anas, anatis.
2. es is long : reges, dies, mones.
EXCEPTIONS :
1. Nom. and Voc. Sing., Third Declension, when th'e Gen. has etis,
itis, idis : seges, miles, obses ; but abies, aries, paries.
2. Compounds of 8s, be (long syllable in PLAUTUS) : adfis, potfis.
3. penes (Preposition).
4. Greek words in 6s (cS) : Norn. PL, as Arcades; Voc., as Demos-
thenes ; Neuter, as cacoethes,
5. Iambic verbal forms in Second Person Sing, in early Latin.
3. os is long : deos, nepos.
EXCEPTIONS :
1. Compos, imp6s, ex5s ; and as the Nom. ending in the Second Declen-
sion.
2. Greek words in 5s (oS) : melds.
4. is is short : canis, legis.
EXCEPTIONS :
1. Dat. and Abl. Plural : terrls, bonis.
2. Ace. PI. of the Third Declension : omnls = omngs.
3. In the Nom. of sundry Proper Names, increasing long in the
Genitive : Quiris, Quirltis.
4. Second Person Sing. Pr. Indie, active, Fourth Conjugation :
audls.
29
450 QUANTITY.
5. In the verbal forms from vis, sis, fis, and veils : n5-ll8, m5-lls,
ad-sis, calc-fis.
6. In the Second Person Sing. Put. Pf. Indie, and Pf. Subjv., is
is common : vlderls.
7. Pulvis, cinls, sanguls, occasionally in early Latin.
5. us is short : servus, currus.
EXCEPTIONS :
1. Gen. Sing., Nom. and Ace. PI., Fourth Declension : currfis.
2. Nom. Third Declension, when the Gen. has a long u : virtus,
virtutis; incus, incudis; telliis, telluris.
3. In Greek words with ft (ouS) : tripus, Sapphus ; but Oedipus and
polypus.
4. Occasionally the Dat. and Abl. PI. of the Third Declension, the
First Person PI. active of verbs, seem to be long in early Latin.
6. ys is short : chlamys.
B. MONOSYLLABLES.
710. RULE IX. — All monosyllables that end in a vowel
are long : a, da, me, de, hi, si, 6, do, tu.
Except the enclitics : -qu6, -v6, -n6, -cS, -t6, -ps8, ptS.
711. RULE X. — Declined or conjugated monosyllables
that end in a consonant follow the rules given : das, fles,
scis, dat, net, is, id, quis, his, quis, quos.
Me, this one, is sometimes short ; die and dfic have the quantity of
their verbs ; es, be, is short in classical Latin, long in early Latin.
712. RULE XI. — Monosyllabic Nominatives of substan-
tives and adjectives are long when they end in a consonant,
even if the stem-syllable be short : 6s, mos, ver, sol, fur, plus ;
lar (laris), pes (pe"dis), bos (b6vis), par (pans).
EXCEPTIONS :
vir and lac, os (ossis), mel ;
Also cor, vas (vadis), fel. Also quot, tot.
713. RULE XII. — Monosyllabic particles that end in a
consonant are short : an, cis, in, n6c, p6r, te"r.
Excepting 6n and n5n and quin ;
And also eras and cur and sin ;
Also the Adverbs in c : hie, hue, hac, sic ; and ac (atque),
QUANTITY. 45 1
Quantity of Stem-Syllables.
714. RULE XIII. — The quantity of stem-syllables, when
not determined by the general rules, is fixed by the usage of
the poets (long or short % authority).
REMARKS. — i. The changes of quantity in the formation of tense-
stems have been set forth in the conjugation of the verb (153, 2).
2. The occasional differences in the quantity of the stem-syllables
which spring from the same radical can only be explained by reference
to the ' history of each word, and cannot be given here. Some ex-
amples are :
paciscor, pax, pacis.
macer, macer o.
16go, lex, legis.
rego, rex, regis.
t6go, tegula.
Seer, acerbus.
moles, mdlestus.
sedeS, sedes.
fides, fido (feido).
dux, duels, duco (doucS).
vdc5, vox.
lucerna, luceo (louceo").
suspicor, suspicio.
mftveS, mobilis (= movbilis).
Quantity in Compounds.
715. RULE XIV. — Compounds generally keep the quan-
tity of their constituent parts : (cedo) ante-cedo, de-cedo,
pro-cedo ; (caedo), occido ; (cado), occldo.
REMARKS. — i. Of the inseparable prefixes, dl, se, and vB are long,
r6 short : dlduco, sgdiico, vScors, reduce ; di, in disertus, is shortened for
dis, and in dirimo, dir stands for dis.
2. N8 is short, except in nedum, nem5 (ne-hem5), nequam, nequlquam,
nequaquam, nequitia, neve.
3. E6 comes from red, which in the forms redd, recc, repp, rell, rett,
occurs principally in poetry before many consonantal verb forms ; but
this doubling varies at different periods, and is found throughout
only in reddo. Re by compensation for the loss of the d is found,
occasionally, principally in Perfect stems and in dactylic poetry,
especially in reicere, religio (also relligio and religi5), reducS (once in
PLAUT.).
4. Pr5 is shortened before vowels, and in many words before con-
sonants, especially before f : prdavos, prOblbeS, prdinde, prfifugio, prdfu-
gus, prdfundus, prdfiteor, prdfarl, prdfanus, prdficlscor, prdcella, prftcul,
prdnepos. The older language shortens less frequently than the later.
In Greek words pro (itpo) is generally short : prdpheta ; but prologus.
5. The second part of the compound is sometimes shortened : deier5,
452 FIGURES OF PROSODY.
(from iHr5), cognitus, agnitus (from notus). Notice the quantity in
the compounds of -dicus : fatidlcus, vSridicus (dlco), and innuba, pronuba
(nubC,.
6. Mechanical rules, more minute than those given above, might be
multiplied indefinitely, but they are all open to so many exceptions as
to be of little practical value. A correct pronunciation of Latin can-
not be acquired except by constant practice, under the direction of a
competent teacher, or by a diligent study of the Latin poets, and con-
sequently of Latin versification.
Peculiarities of Quantity in Early Latin.
716. The Iambic (734) Law. Any combination of short and long,
having an accent on the short, or immediately preceding or following
an accented syllable, may be scanned as a Pyrrhic. This applies to
(a) Iambic words, especially imperatives, as : rogfi, vide, mane ;
(&) Words beginning with an Iambus, when the second syllable is
long by position, and the third syllable is accented, as : senectutem,
voluntatis ;
(c) Two monosyllables closely connected, or a monosyllable closely
connected with a following long initial syllable, as : quis Me est, ut
dccepl. The monosyllable may have become so by elision.
(d) Trochaic words following a short accented syllable, as : quid Istuc.
(e) Cretic words, but more often in anapaestic measure, or at the
beginning of a hemistich, as vSnerant.
NOTES. — 1. Before quidem a monosyllable is shortened : ttt quidem.
2. A combination like voluptas mea is looked upon as a single word.
3. Authorities are not agreed as to the shortening : in polysyllabic words, when the
second syllable is long by nature and the third syllable accented ; in trisyllables which
have become Iambic by elision ; in Cretics at Trochaic and Iambic close ; in poly-
syllables like simillumae.
717. Personal pronouns and similar words of common occurrence
forming Trochees (734) may shorten the initial syllable when followed
by a long syllable or its equivalent, even in the oblique cases : ille
me, dmnium me, unde tibf .
NOTES.— 1. The words involved are ille, illic, iste, istic, ipse, ecquis, omnis,
nempe, inde, unde, qoippe, Immo, and a few others that are disputed, such as some
dissyllabic imperatives like mitte, redde, and monosyllables followed by -que, -ne,
-V6, and the like.
2. Nempe, inde, unde, quippe, ille, iste, may perhaps suffer syncope and be
scanned as monosyllables.
3. Nempe never forms a whole foot. Proin, dein, exin are used only before con-
sonants : proinde only before vowels ; deinde usually before vowels, rarely before
consonants.
4. Trochees also come under the operation of the Iambic Law when they follow a
short accented syllable.
FIGURES OF PEOSODY. 453
FIGURES OF PROSODY.
718. Poetry often preserves the older forms of language,
and perpetuates peculiarities of pronunciation, both of which
are too frequently set down to poetic license.
719. i. Elision. — When one word ends with a vowel and
another begins with a vowel, or h, the first vowel is elided.
Elision is not a total omission, but rather a hurried half-
pronunciation, similar to Grace notes in music.
_ a e
0 felix un(a) ant(e) alias Priamela virg5. — VERG.
2. Ectlilipsis. — In like manner m final (a faint nasal
sound) is elided with its short vowel before a vowel or h.
u u e
Monstr(um), horrend(um), Inf5rm(e) ing6ns cul lumen ademptum. — VERG.
EXCEPTION. — After a vowel or m final, the word est, is, drops its e
and joins the preceding syllable (Aphceresis).
Si rixast ubi tii pulsas ego vapuld tantum. — Juv.
Aeternas quouiam poenas in morte timendumst. — LUCB.
720. Hiatus. — Hiatus is the meeting of two vowels in
separate syllables, which meeting produces an almost contin-
uous opening (yawning) of the vocal tube. In the body of
a word this hiatus, or yawning, is avoided sometimes by con-
traction, often by shortening the first vowel (13).
REMARKS. — i. The IJiatus is sometimes allowed : a, in the Thesis
(729), chiefly when the first vowel is long ; b, in an Arsis (729), or resolved
Thesis, when a long vowel is shortened (Semi-hiatus) ; c, before a pause,
chiefly in the principal Caesura (750) ; d, in early Latin, in the princi-
pal Caesura, before a change of speakers, and occasionally elsewhere.
(a) Stant et iuniperl (h) et castaneae (h) hlrsutae. — VERG.
(b) CrSdimus ? an qui (h) amant ipsl sibi somnia fingunt 1 — VERG.
(c) Promissam eripul genero. (h) Arma impia sumpsi. — VERG.
(d) A. Abl. B. Quid abeam I A. St! abl (h). B. Abeam (h)1 A. Abl.—
PLAUT.
2. Monosyllabic interjections are not elided.
3. On the elision of e in -ne T see 456, R. 2.
721. Diastole. — Many final syllables, which were originally
long, are restored to their rights by the weight of the Thesis.
454 FIGURES OF PROSODY.
TJxor, heus uxor, quamquam tu irata's mihi.- — PLAUT.
Dummodo morata rectS veniat dotatast satis. — PLAUT.
Perrupit Acheronta Herculeus labor. — HOR.
Sometimes, however, Diastole arises from the necessities of the
verse (as in proper names), or is owing to a pause (Punctuation).
Nee quas Pr ^amides i: . aquosis vallibus Idae. — Ov.
Desine plura puer — et quod nunc Instat agamus. — VERG.
Pectorib?7s inhians spirantia consulit exta. — VERG.
NOTE.— The extent to which diastole is allowable is a matter of dispute, especially
in early Latin.
On qu6, see 707, 2, Ex. 5.
722. Systole. — Long syllables which had begun to shorten
in prose, are shortened (Systole).
Obstupul stet^runtque comae vox faucibus haesit. — VERG.
£ terra magn(um) alter ms spectare laborem. — LUCR.
Umus ad certain formam priinordia rerum. — LUCR.
Nullius addictus iurare in verba magistri. — HOR.
NOTE.— The short penult of the Pf. instetferunt, ded6runt, was probably original
(DEDRO in inscriptions). See 131, 4, b, 5 and 6.
723. Hardening. — The vowels i and n assert their half-
consonant nature (Hardening) : abi'etS (abifite"), genva (g6nua),
tenttfa (t6nuia).
FliivzQrum rgx Eridanus camposque per omnes. — VERG.
Nam quae ten/la sunt hiscendlst nulla potestas. — LUCR.
724. Dialysis. — The consonants i and v assert their half-
vowel nature: dissdlwo (dissolve), Ga£us (Gains, from Gavius).
AdulterStur et columba miluo. — HOR.
Stamina non ulll dissoluenda deo. — TIB.
725. Syncope. — Short vowels are dropped between con-
sonants, as often in prose : calfacid for calefacio.
Templorum positor templdrum sancte repostor. — Ov.
Quiddam magnum addens unum me surpite (= surripite) morti. — HOR.
726. Tmesis. — Compound words are separated into their
parts.
Qu5 mS cunque (= quocumque m6) rapit tempestas deferor hospes. —
HOR.
NOTE.— The earlier poets carry Tmesis much further, in unwise emulation of the
Greek. Celebrated is : SaxS cere comminuit brum.— ENNIUS.
VERSIFICATION. 455
727. tfynizesis. — Vowels are connected by a slur, as often
in the living language : deinde, deinceps.
Quid faciam roger anne rogem ? quid deinde rogabo ! — Ov.
So even when h intervenes, as dehinc :
Eurum ad s6 Zephyrumque vocat, dehinc talia fatur. — VERG.
REMARK. — Synizesis (settling together) is also called Synaergsis (tak-
ing together'), as opposed to Diaeresis (5) ; but Synaeresis properly
means contraction, as in cog5 (for coagS), and ne"m5 (for nehemS). Syna-
loepha is a general term embracing all methods of avoiding Hiatus.
NOTE.— 1. Synizesis is very common in early Latin, especially in pronominal forms:
ml (mihi), metis, and its forms, dissyllabic forms like eb, eum, etc.
728. Synaplieia. — A line ends in a short vowel, which is
elided before the initial vowel of a following line, or a word
is divided between two lines, i. e., the two lines are joined
together.
Sors oxitura et nos in aeteru(um)
Exilium impositura cumbae. — HOR., 0., n. 3, 27.
Gallicum Elien(um), horribile aequor, ulti-
mosque Britannos. — CAT., n. n.
VERSIFICATION.
729. Rhythm. — Rhythm means harmonious movement.
In language, Rhythm is marked by the stress of voice (Ac-
cent). The accented part is called the Thesis ; * the unac-
cented, the Arsis. The Rhythmical Accent is called the
Ictus (blow, beat).
REMARK. — Besides the dominant Ictus, there is a subordinate or
secondary Ictus, just as there is a dominant and a secondary Accent
in words.
730. Metre. — Rhythm, when represented in language, is
embodied in Metre (Measure). A Metre is a system of syl-
lables standing in a determined order.
* Thesis and Arsis are Greek terms, meaning the putting down and the raising of
the foot in marching. The Roman Grammarians, misunderstanding the Greek, applied
the terms to the lowering and raising of the voice, and thus reversed the significations.
Modern scholars up to recent times followed the Roman habit, but at present the ten-
dency is to use the terms in their original signification, as above.
456 VERSIFICATION.
731. Unit of Measure. — The Unit of Measure is the short
syllable, (^), and is called Mora, Tempus (Time).
The value in music is J^ = £.
The long (— ) is the double of the short.
The value in music is J = i.
REMARK. — An irrational syllable is one which is not an exact mul-
tiple of the standard unit. Feet containing such quantities are called
irrational.
732. Resolution and Contraction. — In some verses, two
short syllables may be used instead of a long (Resolution),
or a long instead of two short (Contraction).
Eesblution w ^ 0 0 Contraction, ^~J 0 0
733. Feet. — As elements of musical strains, Metres are
called Bars. As elements of verses, they are called Feet.
As musical strains are composed of equal bars, so verses
are composed of equal feet, marked as in music, thus | .
REMARK. — Theoretically, the number of metres is unrestricted ;
practically, only those metres are important that serve to embody the
principal rhythms.
734. Names of the Feet. — The feet in use are the follow-
ing :
Feet of Three Times.
J J
J J
000
J JJ
000
J J
^~ Jj
Trochee,
— w legit.
Iambus,
w — legunt.
Tribrach,
www legite.
Feet of Four Times.
Dactyl,
— w w legimus.
Anapaest,
w w — ISgerent.
Spondee,
legi.
Froceleusmaticus,
w w w w relegitur.
VERSIFICATION.
457
Cretic,
First Paeon,
Fourth Pae5n,
Bacchlus,
Antibacchius,
Feet of Five Times.
— v/ —
— V \J w
legeriut.
J rj
Iggeritis.
J JT.
leglminl.
/37J
Ifigebant.
/J J
legistis.
J J /
loiiicus a maidre, <-»
lonicus a miuore, w w —
Choriambus, — v v
Ditrochee, — v —
Diiambus, w — «--
Pyrrhic, w ^ 16git.
First Epitrite, w
Feet of Six Times.
colleginiiis.
J J n
relegBbant. J"3 J j
colligerant. J JJ J
colliguntur. J • J *
legaminl. J" J J J
REMARKS. — i. Other feet are put down in Latin Grammars, but they
do not occur in Latin verse, if in any, such as :
Antispast, ^ ^ leggbirls.
Dispondee, s6l6g6runt.
Second Paeon, w — w w Iggentibus.
Third Paeon, w ^ - w 16gitot6.
Second Epitrite, — w ellgSbant.
Third Epitrite, - — ^ — s5lSg6rint.
Fourth Epitrite, — — ^ collegistis.
Molossus,
Igggrunt.
2. For Irrational Feet see 743 and 744.
735. Ascending and Descending Rhythms. — Rhythms are
divided into ascending and descending. If the Thesis fol-
lows, the Rhythm is called ascending ; if it precedes, de-
scending. So the Trochee has a descending, the Iambus an
ascending, rhythm.
736. Names of Rhythms. — Rhythms are commonly called
after their principal metrical representative. So the Trochaic
Rhythm, the Anapaestic Rhythm, the Iambic Rhythm, the
Dactylic Rhythm, the Ionic Rhythm.
737. Classes of Rhythms. — In Latin, the musical element
458 VERSIFICATION.
of versification is subordinate, and the principles of Greek
rhythm have but a limited application.
The Greek classes are based on the relation of Thesis to Arsis.
1. Equal Class, in which the Thesis is equal to the Arsis (ysvoS
iGov). This may be called the Dactylico-Anapaestic class.
II. Unequal Class, in which the Thesis is double of the Arsis (ysvoS
di7tA.a<jwv). This may be called the Trochaico-Iambic class.
III. Quinquepartite or Paeonian Class (Five-eighths class), of which
the Cretic andBacchlus are the chief representatives (yevoS wi.it6X.iov).
738. Rhythmical Series.— A Rhythmical Series is an
uninterrupted succession of rhythmical feet, and takes its
name from the number of feet that compose it. ,
Dipody = two feet. Pentapody = five feet.
Tripody = three feet. Hexapody = six feet.
Tetrapody = four feet.
REMARKS. — i. The Dipody is the ordinary unit of measure (-meter) in
Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verse. In these rhythms a mono-
meter contains two feet, a dimeter four, a trimeter six, a tetrameter
eight.
2. The single foot is the ordinary unit of measure (-meter) in Dactyl-
ic verse. Thus, a verse of one Dactyl is called a Monometer ; of two,
a Dimeter ; of three, a Trimeter ; of four, a Tetrameter ; of five, a
Pentameter ; of six, a Hexameter.
3. There are limits to the extension of series. Four feet (in Greek,
five) is the limit of the Dactylic and Anapaestic, six of the Trochaic
and Iambic series. All beyond these are compounds.
739. The Anacrustic Scheme. — Ancient Metric discussed the colon,
whether in Ascending or Descending Rhythm, according to the feet of
which it was composed. Most modern critics, since the time of BENT-
LEY, regard the first Arsis in an ascending rhythm as taking the place
of an upward beat in music (called by HERMANN Anacrusis ; i. e.,
upward stroke, signal-beat), whereby all rhythms become descending.
In this way the Iambus is regarded as an Anacrustic Trochee, the
Anapaest as an Anacrustic Dactyl, the lonicus a minore as an Ana-
crustic ISnicus a maiore. The sign of the Anacrusis is :
740. Equality of the Feet. — Every rhythmical series is
composed of equal parts. To restore this equality, when it
is violated by language, there are four methods :
1. Syllaba Aiiceps. 3. Protraction.
2. Catalexis. 4. Correption.
VERSIFICATION. 459
741. Syllaba Anceps. — The final syllable of an indepen-
dent series or verse may be short or long indifferently. It
may be short when the metre demands a long ; long when
the metre demands a short. Such a syllable is called a Syl-
laba Anceps.
742. Catalexis and Pause. — A complete series is called
Acatalectic ; an incomplete series is called Catalectic. A
series or verse is said to be Catalectic in syllabam, in dissyl-
labum, in trisyUabum, according to the number of syllables
in the catalectic foot.
Trimeter dactylicus catalecticus in sylldbam.
Trimeter dactylicus catalecticus in dissyllabum.
The time is made up by Pause.
The omission of one raora is marked . ; of two ~~~
743. Protraction and Syncope. — Protraction (rovrj) con-
sists in drawing out a long syllable beyond its normal quan-
tity. It occurs in the body of a verse, and serves to make
up for the omission of one or more Arses, which omission is
called Syncope.
i_ = 3 = J. (triseme long) ; i_i = 4 = J (tetraseme long).
744. Correption. — Correption is the shortening of a sylla-
ble to suit the measure.
1. So a long syllable sometimes takes the place of a short, and is
marked > ; similarly, two short syllables often seem to take the place
of one, and may be marked ^j.
2. When a Dactyl is used as a substitute for a Trochee, the approx-
imate value is often 1$ + $ + 1 = 3 = I-J J ; which may be indicated
by -wv-» (cyclic Dactyl).
The following line illustrates all the points mentioned :
a be be b d e
-> \ -^ | - || — | L_ I -vw !-„ I -A
Nullam | Vare sa- | era || vlte pri- | us || s5veris | arbo | -rem.— HOR.
(a) Irrational trochee (irrational long). (6) Cyclic dactyl, (c) Syncope and Protrac-
tion (triseme long), (d) Syllaba anceps. (e) CatalSxia.
460 VERSIFICATION.
REMARK. — Under this head, notice the frequent use of the irrational
long in Anacrusis.
745. Verse. — A Simple Rhythm is one that consists of a
simple series ; a Compound Rhythm is one that consists of
two or more series.
A Verse is a simple or compound rhythmical series, which
forms a distinct and separate unit. The end of a verse is
marked
1. By closing with a full word. Two verses cannot divide a word
between them, except very rarely by Synapheia (728).
2. By the Syllaba Anceps, which can stand unconditionally.
3. By the Hiatus, i. e., the verse may end with a vowel, though the
next verse begin with one. Occasionally such verses are joined by
Synapheia (V., A., i. 332-3, 448-9 5 "• 745-6)-
746. Methods of Combining Verses. — The same verse may
be repeated throughout without recurring groups (Stichic
Composition) ; such as the Septenarius and Octonarius, the
Trochaic Septenarius, the Heroic Hexameter, the Iambic
Senarius (Trimeter). Or the same verse or different verses
may be grouped in pairs (distichs), triplets (tristichs), fours
(tetrastichs). Beyond these simple stanzas Latin versifica-
tion seldom ventured.
Larger groups of series are called Systems.
Larger groups of verses are called Strophes, a name some-
times attached to the Horatian stanzas.
747. Cantica and Dlverbia. — In the Drama there is a broad divis-
ion between that part of the play which was simply spoken, and is
called Dlverbium, comprising the scenes in the Iambic Senarius, and
that part which was either sung or recited to a musical accompani-
ment called Canticum. The Canticum is subdivided into : (1) Those
scenes which were merely recited to the accompaniment of the flute,
and were written in Trochaic and Iambic Septenarii and Iambic Octo-
narii ; and (2) those parts which were written in varying measures
(mutatis modls cantica) and sung. The latter division is also called
" Cantica in the narrow sense," and may be divided into monologues,
dialogues, etc. The greatest variety of measures is found in the mono-
logues.
748. Union of Language with Rhythm. — When embodied
VERSIFICATION. 461
in language, rhythm has to deal with rhythmical groups
already in existence. Every full word is a rhythmical group
with its accent, is a metrical group with its long or short
syllables, is a word-foot. Ictus sometimes conflicts with
accent ; the unity of the verse-foot breaks up the unity of
the word-foot.
749. Conflict of Ictus and Accent. — In ordinary Latin
verse, at least according to modern pronunciation, the Ictus
overrides the Accent ; this conflict seems, however, to have
been avoided in the second half of the Dactylic Hexameter,
and the Ictus made to coincide with the Accent.
NOTE. — The extent to which this conflict was felt by the Homane themselves is a
matter of uncertainty, but it seems likely that the dominant accent of a word was not
so sharp as in modern pronunciation, and consequently the conflict would not be serious.
750. Conflict of Word-foot and Verse-foot. — The conflict
of word-foot and verse-foot gives rise to Caesura. Caesura
means an incision produced by the end of a word in the
middle of a verse-foot, and is marked f.
i
This incision serves as a pause, partly to rest the voice for a more
vigorous effort, partly to prevent monotony by distributing the masses
of the verse.
REMARKS. — i. So in the Heroic Hexameter the great Caesura falls
before the middle of the verse, to give the voice strength for the first
Arsis of the second half.
Una salus victls f nullam sperare salutem. — VERG.
It does not occur at the middle, as in that case the verse would
become monotonous.
2. In many treatises any incision in a verse is called a Caesura.
751. Varieties of Caesura. — Caesurae have different
names to show their position in the foot, as follows :
Semiternaria, after the third half foot, i.e., in the second foot.
Semiqulnaria, after the fifth half foot, i.e., in the third foot.
Semiseptenaria, after the seventh half foot, i.e., in the fourth foot.
Seminovenaria, after the ninth half foot, i.e., in the fifth foot.
REMARK. — These Caesurae are frequently called after their Greek
names, thus : trihemimeral, genlhemimeral, hepthemimeral, etc.
462 VERSIFICATION.
752. Masculine and Feminine Caesurae. — In trisyllabic
metres, when the end of the word within the verse-foot falls
on a Thesis, it is called a Masculine Caesura ; when on an
Arsis, a Feminine Caesura.
a b c d
Una sa | lus f vi | ctls f nul | lam f spe | rare | sa | lutem.
a, &, c, are Masculine Caesurae ; d, a Feminine Caesura.
Especially noteworthy is the Feminine Caesura of the third foot in
the Hexameter, called the Third Trochee (783, R. 2).
753. Diaeresis. — When verse-foot and word-foot coincide,
Diaeresis arises, marked |
Ite domum saturae f venit | Hesperus Q ite capellae. — VERG.
REMARKS. — i. Diaeresis, like Caesura, serves to distribute the masses
of the verse and prevent monotony. What is Caesura in an ascend-
ing rhythm becomes Diaeresis as soon as the rhythm is treated ana-
crustically.
Suls | et i | psa f B5 | ma vi | ribus J mit. Iambic Trimeter.
Su : is et || ipsa || Roma ]| viri | bos f ru | it. Troch. Trimeter Catal.,
with Anacrusis.
2. Diaeresis at the end of the fourth foot of a Hexameter is called
Bucolic Caesura, and has a special effect (783, E. 3).
754. Recitation. — When the word-foot runs over into the
next verse-foot, a more energetic recitation is required, in
order to preserve the sense, and hence the multiplication of
Caesurae lends vigour to the verse.
REMARK. — The ordinary mode of scanning, or singing out the ele-
ments of a verse, without reference to signification, cannot be too
strongly condemned, as,
Unasa, lusvic, tisnul, lamspe, raresa, lutem !
Numerus Italicus.
755. The oldest remains of Italian poetry are found in some frag-
ments of ritualistic and sacred songs, and seem to have had no regard
to quantity. No definite theory can be formed of this so-called Numerus
Italicus in which they were composed, but they seem to have been in
series of four Theses, usually united in pairs or triplets, but sometimes
separate. An example is the prayer to Mars, from CATO, Agr., 141.
Mars pater tg precor | quaesoque uti sies | volens propitiua
Mini domo | familiaeque nostrae, tic.
VERSIFICATION. 463
Saturnian Verse.
756. The Saturnian verse is an old Italian rhythm which occurs in
the earlier monuments of Latin literature. It divides itself into two
parts, with three Theses in each ; but the exact metrical composition
has been a matter of much dispute, the remains not being sufficient to
admit of any dogmatism. The two principal theories are :
1. The Quantitative Theory. — The Saturnian is a six-foot verse with
Anacrusis, and a Caesura after the third Arsis, or more rarely after
the third Thesis.
Dabunt inaliun Metelli | Naevio poetae.
Cornelius Lucius | Sclpio Barbatus.
Quoius fo'rma virtutei | parlsuma fuit.
Eorinn sectam sequontur | multl mortales.
NOTES. — 1. The Thesis is formed by a long or two shorts ; the Arsis by a short, a
long, or two shorts (not immediately before the Caesura). The Arsis may be wholly
suppressed, most often the second Arsis of the second hemistich. Short syllables under
the Ictus may be scanned long. Hiatus occurs everywhere, but usually in Caesura.
2. This theory is held by many scholars, but with various modifications. Thus, some
do not accept the lengthening of the short syllables, others would scau by protraction
four feet iu each half verse, etc.
Dabunt malum Metelli I NaeviS poetae, etc.
2. The Accentual TJieory. — The Saturnian verse falls into two halves,
the first of which has three Theses, the second usually three, sometimes
two, in which case there is usually Anacrusis in the second hemistich.
Quantity is not considered.
Dabunt malum Metelli | Naevio poetae.
Quoius forma virtutei | parisuma flit.
NOTES.— 1. Two accented syllables are regularly divided by a single unaccented
syllable, except that between the second and third there are always two. Hiatus
allowed only at Caesura.
2. A modification of this theory would scan
Dabunt malum Metelli ! Naevio poStae.
3. Very recently a modification of the Accentual Theory has been proposed, which
has much in its favor :
(a) The accent must fall on the beginning of each line, though it may be a second-
ary accent ; the first hemistich has three, the second has but two Theses.
(6) The first hemistich has normally seven syllables, the second six ; but an extra
short syllable may be admitted where it would be wholly or partially suppressed in
current pronunciation.
(c) After the first two feet there is an alternation between words accented on the first
and those accented on the second syllable.
(cO A final short vowel is elided, otherwise semi-hiatus is the rale ; but there may be
fall Hiatus at the Caesura.
Dabunt malum Metelli | Naevio poetae.
Prim(a) ineedit Ccreris I Proserpina puer.
464 VERSIFICATION.
Iambic Rhythms.
757. The Iambic Ehythm is an ascending rhythm, in
which the Thesis is double of the Arsis. It is represented
By the Iambus : w -^ ;
By the Tribrach : ^ <Ln->;
By the Spondee : — -c- ;
By the Dactyl: — O\>;
By the Anapaest : \j ^> -e-\ and
By the Proceleusmaticus : ^>^> vj/w.
V
REMARK. — The Spondee, Dactyl, Anapaest, and Proce&usmatidis
are all irrational, and are consequently marked on the schemesyftius :
> — , > w <_», ^KJ — , \j^> w v-* ; see 744. r
758. Iambic Octondrius (Tetrameter Acatalectic).
Iuss(I) adpararl prandium || aml-
c(a) exspectat me, scio, PL.,
Men., 599. > ^ v->-> j. ^^ | ^ ^ > -> j. v-
Hic finis est iambe salve f vfndi-
cis doctor mail, SERVIUS. >^.^ — \JJ.^J — >JL w— >^w —
Anacrustic Scheme :
NOTE. — This verse is predominantly a comic verse, occurring most frequently in
TERENCE, who shows five hundred lines, while PLAUTUS shows but three hundred.
The substitutions are the same as in the Senarins (761, N. 1). There are two varieties :
(a) That which is divided into two equal halves by Diaeresis at the end of the fourth
foot. In this case the fourth foot as well as the eighth has all the privileges of the final
foot of the Senarins (Hiatus, Syllaba Anceps), and conforms also to its rules, so that the
line is practically a distich of two Quaternarii ; but Hiatus after the fourth foot is
denied for TERENCE.
(b) That which is divided into two unequal halves by a Caesura after the fifth Arsis.
Here the rules of the final foot apply only to the eighth, and the fourth may be a Spon-
dee. The principle which governs the choice of words after the s&niquln&ria in the
Senarins applies here after the dividing Caesura. The Hiatus comes under the general
rules. Prom the earliest period there is a tendency to keep the even feet pure. This
variety is preferred by TERENCE to the former. Examples of the two forms are :
6 Troia, 6 patria, 0 Pergamum, I 0 Priame, periisti senex, PLAUT.
Is porro m(6) autem verberat i! incursat pugnJs calcibus, PI-AUT.
Facil(e) omn.es quom valemus recta ! consilia aegrotis damns, TEE.
759. Iambic Septenarius (Tetrameter Catalectic).
Bemitte pallium mini || meum quod
invollstl, CAT. w^w — <->-£.w— || w^^ — w^. — A
VERSIFICATION. 461
Anacrustic Scheme :
NOTES.— 1. This verse is confined principally to PLATITUS and TERENCE ; it is to be
regarded as a compound of Dimeter + Dimeter Catalectic : hence regular Diaeresis after
the fourth foot, which is treated as a final foot. The same rules, in regard to the vari-
ous word-feet allowable, apply here as in the case of the Senarius (761, N. 6). Substitu-
tions are allowable in every foot except in the fourth, when followed by a Diaeresis.
With Syllaba Anceps :
Si abduxerls celabitur " itidein ut celata aclhuc est, PLAUT.
With Hiatus :
Sed si tibi vlgin^I minae I! argentl prSferuntur, PLAUT.
2. Exceptionally in PLAUTUS, more of ten in TERENCE, the line is cut by Caesura after
the fifth Arsis. In this case the fourth foot has no exceptional laws except that if the
seventh foot is not pure the fourth should be, though this is not absolutely necessary.
760. The Iambic Senarius (a Stichic measure). This is an imitation
of the Iambic Trimeter of the Greeks, but differs from it in that it
is a line of six separate feet and not of three dipodies. In the early
Latin there is no distinction between the odd and even feet, such as
prevails in the Greek Trimeter, but the same substitutions were allow-
able in the one as in the other. This distinction is regained in HORACE
and SENECA, who follow the Greek treatment closely, and with whom
the line may be with some degree of justice called the Iambic Trimeter,
but it is very doubtful whether the Roman felt the Iambic Trimeter as
did the Greek. In both Senarius and Trimeter the last foot is always
pure.
(0M
761. The Early Use (Senarius).
Any substitution is allowed in any foot except the last.
Quamvls sermones | possunt longl
texier, PL., Trin., 797. >^|>— | >^|>_ |>^|^_
QuI scire possls f aut ingenium
nSscere, TEB., And., 53. > ^ | w — | > ^ | >ww | > ^ | w —
S(I) uxoris f propter amoremf no-
lit ducere, TER., And., 155. > ^ | > — | ww ^ | > — | > ^ | w —
Di fortunabuntj vostra consili(a),
fta vo!5, PL., Trin., 576. >^|>— |>^_|w— |^,v^v_/|w —
El r(ei) operam dare tSffiierat ali-
quant(S) aequius, PL., Trin.,
119. > <i"-/ | > ^i\j | > Ow | www | > .£. | w —
NOTES.— 1. In the Iambic measure two shorts at the end of a polysyllabic word
cannot stand in either Thesis or Arsis ; hence such feet as genera, ma I teria, would
not be allowable. But a Dactyl is sometimes found in the first foot (TER., Eun., 348).
The two shorts of a Thesis cannot be divided between two words, when the second word
la a polysyllable with the accent on the second syllable ; hence fingit amorem if*
30
466 VEKSIFICATIOtf.
fanlty. The two shorts of an Arsis should not be divided between two words if the
first short ends a word ; but there are sundry exceptions ; especially the case where
two words are closely connected, as, for instance, a preposition and ite case ; propter
amSrem.
2. The most frequent Caesura is the semiquitiaria. Next comes the sSmisejitSndna,
which is usually accompanied by the slmiternana or by Diaeresis after second foot.
Examples above.
3. Elision is more frequent in the Iambic Senarius than in the Dactylic Hexameter,
and occurs especially before the first and fifth Theses ; also not unfrequently in the
fourth foot. The proportion of elision varies between TERENCE (four elisions in every
three verses) and HORACE (one in five stichic verses, and one in seven in distichs).
4. Semi-hiatus (720), also called Graecanicus or LSgitimus, is very common both in
Thesis and Arsis ; Hiatus is also admitted at a change of speaker ; whether it is admis-
sible before proper names, foreign words, and in the principal Caesura, is still a matter
of dispute.
5. If the line is divided by the s&niqiiln&ria Caesura, and the fifth foot is formed by
a single word, the second half of the third foot, together with the fourth, may be formed
by a single word only when that is a Crctic or a Fourth Paeon ; as, fllius bonan fidS
(PL., Most., 670). Thus dSpinxtl verbls probg would not he allowable for verbls
dgpinxtl probS (PL., Poen., 1114).
6. To close the line with two Iambic feet was not allowable, except as follows : (1)
When the line ends with a word of four syllables or more. (2) When the line ends with
a Cretic. (3) When the line ends with an Iambic word preceded by an anapaest or
Fourth Paeon. (4) When a change of person precedes the sixth foot. (5) When elision
occurs in the fifth or sixth foot.
762. The Later Use (Trimeter).
Sufs et ipsa f Roma vir ibiis ruit w -^ ^ — | «-» ^. «-» — | <-/ .*.<_/ —
Heu m£ per urbein f nam pudet
tanti mall > ^ w — |>^.w— | >^w —
Deripere lunam f vScibus possim
mels >v^/ww — | > jc. w — | >_d.\_< —
InfSmis Helenas f Castor offgnsus
vicein >-2.wv_/v_<|> -£-<-< — | > -t- <^> —
Optat quigtemf Pelopis infidf pater > -^ w — |>v^ww— | > ^ w —
Alitibus atque f canibus homici-
d(am) Hectorem ><^ww— | w vi «^ ^ w ^ | >^.w —
Vect&bor humerlsftunc eg(o) ini-
micis eques > ^-v-'v-'v-'|>^.v_'wvy|>^.<_/ —
Pavidumqne lepor(em) et f adve-
nam laqueo gruem, HOB. *~*-> j- ^->^-> ^ | <-» ^- w — | <-^ ^ ^> —
Anacrustic Scheme : ^ : — ^ \ — | — *-» | — | — ^ I — A
NOTES. — 1. The Iambic Trimeter, when kept pure, has a rapid aggressive movement.
Hence, it is thus used in lampoons and invectives. It admits the Spondee in the odd
places (first, third, fifth foot); the Tribrach in any but the last, though in HORACE it is
excluded from the fifth foot ; the Dactyl in the first and third. The Anapaest is rare.
The Proceleusmaticus occurs only in SENECA and TERENTIANUS. When carefully
handled, the closing part of the verse is kept light, so as to preserve the character. The
VERSIFICATION. 467
fifth foot is pure in CATULLUS, but is almost always a Spondee in SENECA and
PETRONIUS.
2. Diaeresis at the middle of the verse is avoided. Short particles, which adhere
closely to the following word, do not constitute exceptions.
Laboriosa nee cohors Ulixel, HOB.
AdulterStur etjjolumba nuluo, HOB.
In like manner explain—
Befertque tanta grexjimlcus ubera, HOB.
3. The Caesura is usually the sSmiqulndria, but the stmisepttnaria is found also,
but either with the semiqulnaria or with Diaeresis after the second foot.
4. The SSnSrim ptt)*us, composed wholly of Iambi, is found first in CATULLUS (iv.
and xxix.) ; also in HOBACE (Epod., xvi.), VEBGIL (Cat., 3, 4, 8), and the PriapSa.
5. Of course, in the Anacrustic Scheme, the Caesura of the ordinary scheme becomes
Diaeresis.
Le : vis ere I pante II lyinpha II desi 1 lit pe I de.
763. Iambic Trimeter Catalectic. ,
MeS renldet in domo lacunar <^^.w — \j JL\J — ^> ^^>
Rggumque pueris nee satelles Orel, HOR. >J-LW^^>^.W — w^.^7
Anacrustic Scheme, : ^ : ^ w | — >|^w|— w|^_|— /\ (with
Syncope).
NOTES. — This occurs in HOBACE (0., i. 4; n. 18). No resolutions are found except in
the second line quoted, where pueris may be dissyllabic (27), and the Spondee alone is
used for the Iambus, mainly in the third foot. The Caesura is always sZmiqulnfiria.
764. Trimeter lambicus Claudus (Choliambus) ; Scazon
( — HobUer) Hipponacteus.
Miser Catulle desinas ineptlre, CAT. w ^ ^ — w^w — w^^w
Fuls^re quondam candid! tibf s5lSs, CAT. > JL\J — >^w — w^.^ —
Dominis parantur ista; serviunt v6bis,MART. wo-^w — w^w — ^> JL j.—
Anacrustic Scheme : :^w|— |^.^|— wli-i-l^^. Tro-
\J \J ' W
chaic Trimeter with Anacrusis, Syncope, and Protraction.
NOTES. — 1. In the Choliambus the rhythm is reversed at the close, by putting a Tro-
chee or Spondee in the sixth foot. The lighter the first part of the verse, the greater the
surprise. It is intended to express comic anger, resentment, disappointment.
2. This metre, introduced into Rome by MATTIUS, was used frequently by CATULLUS
and MABTIAL. PEBSIUS also has it in his Prologue.
3. The Dactyl is occasional in the first and third feet, the Tribrach occurs very rarely
in the first, more often in the third and fourth, frequently in the second. The Spondee
is found in the first and third feet ; the Anapaest only in the first.
4. The Caesura is usually sZmiqmnfiria, sometimes sZmisepf&naria, which is regu •
larly supported by Diaeresis after the second foot.
765. Iambic Quaterndrius (Dimeter}.
Inarsit aestu6sius ^ •£. w — w _s_ ^ —
Imbi-gs nivesque comparat > -=- w — w^w —
Vidfoe properantfe domum w ^ ww^>^.w —
Ast ego vicissim risers, HOE. > ^w w — > x. ^ —
468 VEKSIFICATION.
Anacrustic Scheme :
NOTE. — This verse is constructed according to the principles which govern the Sena-
ritis and Octonarius. It is rare in systems until the tune of SENECA, and is usually
employed as a Clausula in connection with Octonarii and Septenarii (PLADTUS, TER-
ENCE), Senarii (HORACE), or Dactylic Hexameter (HORACE).
766. Iambic Terndrius (Dimeter Catalectie},
Id repperi i(am) exemplum >^w — > ^ — or> : ^^^>ui — /\
NOTE. — This verse is found mainly in PLAUTUS and TERENCE, and used as a Clau-
sula to Bacchic Tetrameters (PLAUTUS), Iambic Septenarii (PLAUTUS) ; but twice in
TERENCE (A?ul., 485 ; Hec., 731). It is found in systems first in PETRONTUS.
767. The Iambic Tripody Catalectie and the Dipody Aca-
talectic are found here and there.
Inops amStor, Trin,, 256. Bonu(s) sit bonis, B., 660.
Trochaic Rhythms.
768. The Trochaic Rhythm is a descending rhythm, in
which the Thesis is double of the Arsis. It is represented,
By the Trochee : j. w ;
By the Tribrach : o w «-/ ;
By the Spondee : ^ — ;
By the Anapaest : -^ *-> — ;
By the Dactyl : ^ w w .
By the Proceleusmaticus : ^ w w .
REMARK. — The Spondee, Anapaest, Dactyl, and Proceleusmaticus are
all irrational and are accordingly measured — > , ww > , -^ w or — w^.
<~> \j ^u ; see 744.
769. Trochaic Octonarius (Tetrameter Acatalectic}.
Scheme:
>> >-> > > > ->
Farce iam camoena vati || parce iam sacro furori. — SERVIUS.
Date viam qua fugere liceat , | j facite, t otae plateae pateant, PL. , Aul. ,407.
NOTE. — This verse belongs to the cantica of early Comedy. It is properly a com-
pound of two Quaternarii. Hence Hiatus and Syllaba Anceps are admitted in the
Diaeresis. A fourth or sixth Thesis, formed by the last syllable of a word forming or
ending in a Spondee or Anapaest, was avoided, as was also a monosyllabicclose. The
Substitutions were allowed in all feet except the eighth, where the Tribrach is rare.
770. Trochaic Septenarius (Tetrameter Catalectie).
Scheme : -c- — ^ ^ ^ — > ^ ^ — >^v^ —
VERSIFICATION. 469
Cras amet qui numqu(am) amavit || quiqu(e) amavit eras amet. — PERVIG.
YEN.
Tu m(6) amoris magi' qu(am) honoris || servavistl gratia. — ENNIUS.
Vapular(e) ego t6 vehementer || iubeo : n6 m6 territes. — PLAUT.
NOTES. — 1. This is usually divided by a Diaeresis after the fourth Arsis into two
halves, with the license of a closing verse before the Diaeresis ; this is often sup-
ported by Diaeresis after the second foot. Not unfrequently the line is divided by
Caesura after the fourth Thesis, which may in this case be Anceps or have Hiatus,
though not in TEBBNCE ; but other critics refuse to admit such a division, and prefer
Diaeresis after the fifth foot. The substitutions are allowable in any foot except the
seventh, which is regularly kept pure, though occasionally in early Latin a Tribrach or
a Dactyl occurs even here. But the Dactyl is rare ha the fourth foot.
2. The rule for the words allowable after the sVmiquinarla Caesura in the Senarius
(761, N. 5) apply here after the Diaeresis, with the necessary modifications ; that is, the
second hemistich cannot be formed by a word occupying the fifth and the Thesis of the
sixth foot, followed by a word occupying the two succeeding half feet, unless the first
word is a Cretic or a Fourth Paeon.
3. In regard to the close the same rules apply as hi the case of the Iambic Senarius
(761, N. 6) ; in regard to the fourth and sixth Theses the rules are the same as for the
Octonarius (769, N.).
4. The strict Septenarius of the later poets keeps the odd feet pure, and rigidly
observes tho Diaeresis.
771. Trochaic Tetrameter Claudus.
Hunc Ceres, cibf ministra, frugibus suls
porcet, VARRO. ^.^ — w^w — ^> JL \j — >_/^^w
NOTE. — This verse is found only hi the Menippean Satires of VARKO, and is formed,
like the Iambic Senarius Claudus, by reversing the last two quantities.
772. Trochaic Quaternarius with Anacrusis.
SI fractus illabatur orbis, HOE. w : ^ w | -- | ^ w | — U
NOTE.— This occurs only in the Alcaic Strophe of HOBACB.
773. Trochaic Terndrius (Dimeter Catalectic).
Respice v5ro ThespriS, PL., Ep., 3. <
N6n ebur nequ(e) aureum, IIoR. ^
NOTE.— An uncommon measure, confined mainly to early poetry and to HORACE ; it
is used as a Clausula between Tetrameters (PLAUTDS) and Iambic Senarii Catalectic
(HORACE), or hi series. The third foot was kept pure ; also the others in the strict,
measure.
774. The Trochaic Tripody Acatalectic (Ithyphallic).
Qu(om) Qsus est ut pudeat, PLAUT., -f- w — > & ^ <~>
NOTE.— This is rare, and appears only in early Latin and as a Clausula, usually with
Cretics. Substitutions were allowable in every foot.
470 VEKSIFICATION.
775. Trochaic Tripody Catalectic.
Eheu, qu(am) ego malls \ perdidi modis,
PL., Ps., 259. JL> \i> \j \j .*. || j.^> .z. ^ jc.
NOTE.— This is found occasionally in early Latin ; usually two at a time, otherwise
as a Clausula. When the first word is a Cretic the line may end in two Iambi.
776. Trochaic Dipody (Monometer).
Nimis inepta's, PL., Hud., 68 1. vi/ ^ w ^. ^
NOTE.— This is found occasionally as a Clausula with Cretic Tetrameters.
Anapaestic Rhythms.
777. The Anapaestic Rhythm is an ascending rhythm, in
which the Thesis is to the Arsis as 2 to 2. It is represented,
By the Anapaest : w w ^. ;
By the Spondee :—-«-;
By the Dactyl : — >i,w;
By the Proceleusmaticus : *-• w \I/ ^>.
NOTES. — 1. The Anapaestic measure is not uncommon in the Cantica of PLAUTUS ;
but it is the metre most subject to license of all the early metres. Notice especially the
operation of the Iambic Law (716, 717) ; the common occurrence of Synizesis, of Dia-
stole, and less often of Syncope', etc.
2. Strict Anapaestic lines after the model of the Greek are found only in VAEBO,
SENECA, and later authors.
778. Anapaestic Octondrius (Tetrameter Acatalectic), and
Anapaestic Septenarius (Tetrameter Catalectic}.
Hostibiis victis, clvibus salvls || rS pla- — vi-w \L>^> ||
cida, pacibus perfectis, Pers., 753. — <i"^ ww ^.
Septumas ess(e) aedls a porta f | ub(i) — <^^> — —*. |
fll(e) habitat I5n5 quoi iussit, Ps., 597. w ^ vi/w —
Ait illaui miseram, cruciar(i) et lacru- w ^ ^ — ^^ — o w |
mantem s(6) adflictar e, PL. , M. G. , 1032. w^^ ^~A
Erit et tib(i) 6xoptat(um) obtinget || bo- w ^ ^ w
n(um) hab(e) animum n6 f ormlda, PL. , <->
M.O., ion.
NOTES.— 1. These have regularly the Diaeresis after the fourth foot, dividing the
line into Quaternarii. Before the Diaeresis, the licenses of a closing foot (Hiatus and
Syllaba Anceps) are occasionally found.
2. In the Septenarius the seventh Thesis may be resolved, but the resolution of the
eighth in the Octonarius is avoided.
779. Anapaestic Trimeter Catalectic.
Perspicio nihill meam vos gratiarn facere,
PL., Cure., 155. — v&w— ww— j. \o^i— A
NOTE. — This verse is very rare, and is denied by some critics ; it has the same treat-
ment as the Septenarius.
VERSIFICATION. 4/1
780. Anapaestic Quaterndrius (Dimeter Acatalcctic).
Venient annls || saecula sgris «^ w ^ - vz/w —
Quibus Oceanus j| vincula rerum w w ^. w w — — ow --
Laxet et inge"ns || pateat tellus - v^> — — w \-> -c- --
Tethysque novos || detegat orbes -c- <~>v_/ — - -&^—
Nee sit terrls || ultima ThulS. — SEN. TRAG. - - M/W --
NOTE.— This verse avoids resolution of the fourth Thesis : Syllaba Auccps and
Hiatus are rare.
781. Anapaestic Dimeter Catalectic (Paroemiac).
Volucer pede corpore pulcher w^^ww — ^w^.v-»
Lingua catus ore canorus — -£.ww — w w _£. >-»
Verum memorare magis quam — ^.\j \j — ww^.w
Ffinctum laudare decSbit. — AUSON. — ^- — — ww^.v^
NOTES.— 1. This verse is not common except as the close of a system of Anapaestic
Acatalectic Dimeters. It allows in early Latin resolution of the third Thesis.
2. Latin Anapaests, as found in later writers, are mere metrical imitations of the
Greek Anapaests, and do not correspond to their original in contents. The Greek
Anapaest was an anacrustic dactylic measure or march (in j time). Heiice the use of
Pause to bring out the four bars. •
Paroemiacus : Anacrustic Scheme.
Volucer pede corpore pulcher <-» ^ : — w \_» | —\j\j | -- | —
A
Dimeter Acatalectic : Anacrustic Scheme.
Quibus Oceanus vincula rerum \j \j : — w w | -- | \j \j— | — >
The Arses of the last feet are supplied by the Anacrusis of the following verse.
782. Anapaestic Dipody (Manometer Acatalectic).
Omne paratumst, PL., Min., 365 — ^^>— j-
NOTB.— This verse is found in anapaestic systems between Anapaestic Dimeters.
Dactylic Rhythms.
783. The Dactylic Rhythm is a descending rhythm, in
which the Thesis is equal to the Arsis (2 = 2).
The Dactylic Rhythm is represented by the Dactyl :-*-<-"-'.
Often, also, by the Spondee : ^— •
784. Dactylic (Heroic) Hexameter. — The Heroic Hexameter is com-
posed of two Dactylic tripodies, the second of which ends in a Spondee.
Spondees may be substituted for the Dactyl in the first four feet ; in
the fifth foot, only when a special effect is to be produced. Such
verses are called Spondaic. The longest Hexameter contains five
Dactyls and one Spondee (or Trochee) — in all, seventeen syllables ; the
shortest in use, five Spondees and one Dactyl — iu all, thirteen sylla-
4/2 VERIFICATION.
bles. This variety in the length of the verse, combined with the great
number of caesural pauses, gives the Hexameter peculiar advantages
for continuous composition.
Scheme : ±w \ ^w \ *.w \ *-w \ +w \ +-
1. Ut fugiunt aquilas t timidissima !1 turba columbae. Ov. "i
2. At tuba terribill t sonitu t procul 1! acre canoro. VERG. | FJve Dact lg
3. Quadrupedante putrem t sonitu ! quatit I ungula campum. f
VERG.
4. Cum medio celergs t revolant I ex^equore mergl. VERG. "i
5. Vastius insurggns t decimae I ruit impetus undae. Ov. I F0ur Dactyls.
6. Et reboat raucuin t regio t cita I: barbara ! bombum. LUCR. j
7. Muta metu terram t genibus t summissa petSbat. LUCR. "i
8. Inter cunctantSs t cecidit t moribunda ministros. VERG. I Three Dactyls.
9. Ne turbata volent t rapidls t ludibria ventis. VERG.
10. Versaqu(e) in obnixos t urgentur :l cornua vasto. VERQ. I TWQ Dacty]B
11. Processit longe t flammantia II moenia mundl. LUCR.
12. Portam vl multa t converse j cardine torquet. VERG.
13. TgctCum) august(um) inggns t centum sublime columnls. !• One Dactyl.
VERG.
14. 0111 respondit t Kej^Albai Longal. ESTNIUS. J-No Dactyl.
15. Aut iSvSs ocreas t lento t ducunt argentO. VERG. "j
16. Sunt apud infernos t totmllia formosamm. PROP.
17. Aeriaeque AlpSs t eUiubifer I! Appennlnus. Ov.
18. Procubuit viridi- 1 qu(e) in lltore !! conspicitur— sus. VERG. I Monosyllabic
19. Parturiunt inontes t nascetur 11 ridiculus iiius. HOR. ending.
10 +6 = 16 8 I Semiqnin. and
20. Nascere, praeque diem+veniens age,i|Lucifer,almum. VERG. > Bucolic.
f Third Trochee
21. Inslgnem pietate t virnm t tot adire laborSs. VERG. and
[ Semisept.
22. £t nigrae violae t sunt !! et vaccinia I nigra. VERG. }• Split in half.
23. Sparsis 1! hastls fl longls I! campus II splendet et horret. EN. ;• Shivered.
2 '. . Quamvfs sint sub aqua sub aqua maledlcere tentant. Ov. }• a, - sound.
'25. M6 m(6) adsum qui fSc(I) in mS convertite fermm. VERG. }-e - sound.
26. Discissos nudos laniabant dentibus artus. VERG. J-s - sound.
NOTES. — 1. The two reigning ictuses are the first and fourth, and the pauses are so
arranged as to give special prominence to them— the first by the pause at the end of the
preceding verse, the fourth by pauses within the verse, both before and after the Thesis.
2. The principal Caesura is the slmiquln&ria or penlhemimeral, i. e., after the Thesis
of the third foot, or Masculine Caesura of the third foot ; the next is the sSmiseptSnSria
or hepthemimeral, after the Thesis of the fourth foot ; but usually supplemented by the
sSmiterndria in the Thesis of the second or by one after the second Trochee ; then
the Feminine Caesura of the third foot, the so-called Third Trochee, which is less used
among the Romans than among the Greeks. As Latin poetry is largely rhetorical,
and the Caesura is of more importance for recitation than for singing, the Roman poets
are very exact in the observance of these pauses.
VEKSIFICATION. 473
In verses with several Caesuras, the semiseptenaria outranks the stmiqulitSria, if it
precedes a period, and the latter does not, or if it is perfect and the latter is imperfect
(i.e., formed by tmesis or by elision) ; it also as a masculine Caesura outranks the Third
Trochee as a feminine. In other cases there may be doubt as to the principal Caesura.
3. The Diaeresis which is most carefully avoided is the one after the third foot,
especially if that foot ends in a Spondee, and the verse is thereby split in half.
Examples are found occasionally, and if the regular Caasura precedes, the verse is
not positively faulty.
His lacrimls vltam t damus II — et miserSseimus ultrS.— VERG.
It is abominable when no other Caesura proper is combined with it.
Poeni I! pervortentcs II omnia II circumcursant.— ENNIUS.
On the other hand the Diaeresis at the end of the fourth foot divides the verse into
proportionate parts (sixteen and eight morae, or two to one), and gives a graceful tro-
chaic movement to the hexameter. This is called the Bucolic Caesura, and while com-
mon in Greek, is not so in Latin even in bucolic poetry. JUVENAL, however, ia fond of
it, showing one in every fifteen verses.
Ite domuiu saturae I venit Hesperus II Ite capellae.— VERG.
4. Verses without Caesura are very rare ; a few are found in ENNIUS (see No. 23) and
LUCILIUS. HORACE uses one designedly in A.P., 263.
5. Elision is found most often in VERGIL (one case in every two verses) and least
often in LUCAN (leaving out ENNIUS and CLAUDIAN). CATULLUS, JUVENAL, HORACE,
OVID stand about midway between these two extremes. It is very rare in the Thesis
of the first foot, and is found oftenest in the following order : the Thesis of the second
foot, the Arsis of the fourth, the Arsis of the first, the Thesis of the third.
6. Simple Hiatus is very rare in lines composed wholly of Latin words, except at the
principal Caesura ; it is found after a final short syllable (excluding -m) but twice (V.,
EC., u. 53 ; A., i. 405) ; after a long monosyllable (omitting Interjections o and a) but
once (V., A., iv. 235). But before the principal Caesura, or if the line contains a Greek
word, examples are not very uncommon. VERGIL has altogether about forty cases ;
HORACE shows two cases (S., 1. 1, 108 ; Epod., 13, 3) ; CATULLUS two in the Hexameter
of the Elegiac Distich (66, 11 ; 107, 1); PROFERTIUS one (m. 7, 49).
7. Of Semi-hiatus VERGIL shows some ten examples at the close of the Dactyl, but all
of Greek words except A., in. an ; EC., 3, 79 ; there are occasional examples elsewhere,
as in PROPERTIUS, HORACE, etc. There are also several examples of Semi-hiatus after a
monosyllable in the first short of the Dactyl, as : CAT., xcvn. i ; V., A., vi. 507 ; HOR.,
S., i. g, 38. Hiatus after num occurs in HOR., S., n. 2, 28.
8. VERGIL is fond of Diastole, showing fifty-seven cases, all except three (A., m.
464, 702 ; xii. 648) of syllables ending in a consonant ; HORACE, in Satires and Epistles,
has eleven, once only of a vowel (S., n. 3, 22) ; CATULLUS, three ; PROPBRTIUS, three ;
TIBULLUS, four ; MARTIAL (in the Distich), two ; VERGIL also lengthens que sixteen
times, but only when que is repeated in the verse, and before two consonants or a
double consonant (except A., in. 91) ; OVID exercises no such care.
9. A short syllable formed by a final short vowel remains short before two con-
sonants, of which the second is not a liquid (mainly sc, sp, st), especially in the fifth
foot, less often in the first. LUCILIUS, LUCRETIUS, and ENNIUS have numerous exam-
ples of this ; VBRGIL but one case (A., xi. 309), except before z ; HORACE has eight
cases in the Satires ; PROPERTIUS six ; TIBULLUS two cases, one before smaragdos.
10. A Hexameter should close (a) with a dissyllable preceded by a polysyllable of at
least three syllables, or (6) with a trisyllable preceded by a word of at least two syllables.
The preposition is proclitic to its case. Exceptions to this rule are common in early
Latin, but decrease later. Thus ENNIUS shows fourteen per cent, of exceptional lines.
In later times artistic reasons sometimes caused the employment even of a monosyllable
at the end (see exs. 18, 19).
11. Spondaic lines are exceptional in ENNIUS and LUCRETIUS, more common in
474 VERSIFICATION.
CATULLUS, rare in VERGIL, OVID, HORACE, never in TIBULLUS. The stricter poets
required that in this case the fourth foot should be a Dactyl, and then the two last feet
were usually a single word. Entirely Spondaic lines are found in ENNIUS (three cases,
as Ann., i. 66, M.) and CAT. (n6, 3).
12. Emaus shows three peculiar cases of the resolution of the Thesis in the Dactyl,
Ann., 267 ; Sat., 53 and 59.
13. Hypermetrical verses running into the next by Synapheia are rare ; e.g., LUCK.,
v. 846 ; CAT., 64, 298 ; 115, 5. VERGIL has twenty cases, usually involving que or ve,
but twice -m (A., vn. 160 ; G., i., 295) ; three other cases are doubtful. HORACE has
two cases (in the Satires), OVID three, VALERIUS FLACCUS one. HORACE has also
four cases of two verses united by tmesis of a compound word.
14. Pure dactylic lines are rare ; the most usual forms of the first four feet of the
Btichic measure are these : DSSS, 15 per cent. ; DSDS, 11.8 per cent. ; DDSS, 11 per cent. ;
SDSS, 10 per cent. The most uncommon are SSDD, 1.9 per cent. ; SDDD, 2 per cent. The
proportion of Spondee to Dactyl in the first four feet varies from 65.8 per cent. 'of
Spondee in CATULLUS to 45.2 per cent, in OVID. The following statements are from
Drobisch : (a) Excepting ENNIUS, CICERO, and Smus ITALICUS, Latin poets have
more Dactyls than Spondees in the first foot. (6) Excepting LUCRETIUS, more Spon-
dees in the second, (c) Excepting VALERIUS FLACCUS, more Spondees in the third.
(d) Without exception, more Spondees in the fourth.
15. Much of the beauty of the Hexameter depends on the selection and arrangement
of the words, considered as metrical elements. The examples given above have been
chosen with especial reference to the picturesque effect of the verse. Monosyllables at the
end of the Hexameter denote surprise ; anapaestic words, rapid movement, and the like.
Again, the Hexameter may be lowered to a conversational tone by large masses of
Spondees, and free handling of the Caesura. Compare the Hexameters of HORACE in
the Odes with those in the Satires.
785. Elegiac Pentameter (Catalectic Trimeter repeated).
The Elegiac Pentameter consists of two Catalectic Trimeters or Pen-
themimers, the first of which admits Spondees, the second does not.
There is a fixed Diaeresis in the middle of the verse, as marked above,
which is commonly supplemented by the semiterndria Caesura. The
Pentameter derives its name from the old measurement : — w w , — w w ,
,ww— ,^w— ; and the name is a convenient one, because the
verse consists of 2£ + 2% Dactyls. The Elegiac Distich is used in sen-
timental, amatory, epigrammatic poetry.
The musical measurement of the Pentameter is as follows :
— W v-> I — W >-> I ' 1 I — WW I — WV-> I
A
This shows why neither Syllaba Anceps nor Hiatus is allowed at the
Diaeresis, and explains the preference for length by nature at that point.
At dolor in lacrimas || verterat omne
merum, TIB. ^. w w ^. w w
Me legat et lecto || carmine doctus
amet, Ov. ^. ^ w ^- — *•
At nunc barbaries || grandis habgre
nihil, Ov. -£• — j. \j \j *.
Concessum nulls || llge redlbit iter,
PBOP. J. — J. — J.
VERSIFICATION. 475
The Elegiac Pentameter occurs only as a Clausula to the Heroic
Hexameter, with which it forms the Elegiac Distich. Consequently the
sense should not run into the following Hexameter (exceptions rare) :
Saep(e) ego tentavi curas depellere vino
At dolor in lacrimas || verterat omne merum, TIB.
Ingeniom quondam fuerat pretiosius auro
At nunc barbaries || grandis Labere nihil, O v.
Par erat Inferior versus : risisse Cupldo
Dicitur atque unum || surripuisse pedem, Ov.
Saep(e) ego cum dominae dukes a llmine duro
Agnosco voces | haec negat esse domi, TIB.
NOTES.— 1. In the first two feet of the Pentameter, which alone can suffer variation,
the forms are as follows : DS, 46 per cent.; DD, 24.5 per cent.; ss, 16 per cent.; SD, 13.5
per cent. CATULLUS, however, has BS, 34.5 per cent.
2. Elision is rare, especially in the second hemistich. When it occurs it is generally
in the first Arsis or second Thesis, and usually affects a short vowel or -m. CATULLUS
shows the greatest proportion of examples, OVID the smallest. Except in CATULLUS and
LTGDAMUS there are fewer cases of Elision in the Pentameter than in the Hexameter.
3. Elision and Diastole in the Diaeresis are rare. CATULLUS especially, and PRO-
PEBTIUS occasionally, have Elision. PROPERTIUS and MARTIAL show each two cases
of Diastole (PROP., n. 8, 8 ; n. 24, 4 ; MART., ix. 101, 4 ; xrv. 77, 2).
4. A final short vowel before two consonants, one of which is a liquid or s, is
lengthened twice in TIBULLUS, and remains short once in PROPERTIUS (TiB., i. 5, 38 ;
i. 6, 34 ; PROP., iv. 4, 48).
5. Dialysis occurs in compounds of solvo and volvS ; as, CAT., 66, 74 ; TIB., i. 7, 2, etc.
6. In the strict handling of the Pentameter by OVID, the rule was that it should
close with a dissyllable. So in his Amores, OVID shows no example of any other end-
ing ; and in his Tristia the proportion is one in one hundred and forty lines. In ear-
lier times, however, there was no especial avoidance of polysyllabic endings, though
more are found in CATULLUS than in any other author. Peculiar is PROPERTIUS, who,
while almost equalling CATULLUS in his disregard of the law of the dissyllabic ending
in the first book, equals the Tristia of OVID in the observance of it in his fourth.
With dissyllabic ending the prevailing forms of the second Hemistich are — <-* ^ , — ^ >
*-* — » and — <-» > ^ — <-» , \-> — , but TIBULLUS and OVID, and in less degree CATUL-
LUS, employ quite often — <-» v_> — w , w — and — , '-'«-', — <-* , v> — .
786. Dactylic Tetrameter Acat. (metrum Alcmdnium).
None decet aut viridi nitiduin caput ^.ww^.ww-c.^w^.ww
Fallida mors aequG pulsat pede j-w^-— .*_— .z. ^ ^
Vftae summa brevis spem nos vetat ^— ^^w^— i«j^
This verse occurs mainly in combination with an Ithyphattlc to form the Greater
Archttochian verse ; occasionally in stichic composition in SENECA ; also in TER.,
And., 625.
787. Dactylic Tetrameter Cat. in Dissyllabum (ArcJii-
lochium).
Aut Epheson bimarisve Connthi ^.WWJL^WJLWW^."VJ
0 fortes peioraque pass! -t— ^. — ^.ww^.TJ
Hgnsorem cohibent Archy ta, II OH -* — ^.\j \j ^.— j. ^
476 VERSIFICATION.
NOTE.— This line, which only occurs in the Alcmanian System, may also be looked
upon as an Acatalectic Tetrameter with a spondaic close.
788. Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic in Syllabam (Lesser
Archilochiari).
Pulvis et umbra sumus, HOR. ^ w w -=- w w ^
NOTE.— This line occurs mainly in the first three ArchUochian Strophes.
789. Dactylic Dimeter Catalectic in Dissyllabum (Adonic).
Terruit urbem, HOB. -*- ^ ^ -^ w
NOTE.— Though generally measured thus, this verse is properly logaoedic, and will
recur under that head (792). It occurs mainly in the Sapphic stanza, and at the close
of series of Sapphic Heudecasyllabics in SENECA.
Logaoedic Rhythms.
790. The Logacedic Khythm is a peculiar form of the Tro-
chaic rhythm, in which the Arsis has a stronger secondary
ictus than the ordinary Trochee.
Instead of the Trochee, the cyclic Dactyl or the irrational
Trochee may be employed. This cyclic Dactyl is represented
in morae by 1£, £, 1 ; in music, by J. J j = ^, TV, i
When Dactyls are employed, the Trochee preceding is
called a Basis, or Tread, commonly marked x . If the basis
is double, the second is almost always irrational in Latin
poetry. Instead of the Trochee, an Iambus is sometimes
prefixed. Anacrusis and Syncope are also found.
REMARKS. — i. Logaoedic comes from Xoyos, prose, and dotSr/,
song, perhaps because the rhythms seem to vary as in prose.
2. Dactyls are usually, but not necessarily, employed.
No Dactyl.
791. Alcaic Enneasyllabic.
Sf fractus illabatur orbis, HOE. ^ : *-v*.>*.\jj.\j
NOTE. — The Anacrusis should be long. HORACE shows no exceptions in the fourth
book and very few in the first three. The regular Caesura is the sSmiquwdria.
One Dactyl.
792. Adonic.
Terruit urbem, HOE. -</ w | ^ ^ |
NOTE. — Elision is not allowed in this verse. As far as its formation is concerned, it
should consist either of a dissyllable + a trisyllable, or the reverse. Proclitics and
enclitics go with their principals.
VEBSIFICATION. 477
793. Aristophanic (Choriambic).
Lydia die per omnfe, HOK. A/w | jc. v \ ut. | A
NOTE.— This verse occurs mainly in the lesser Sapphic Strophe of HORACE.
One Dactyl, with Basis.
794. Pherecratean.
x
Nigris aequora ventis, HOR. ^ > | A/ <~- | L^ | —
NOTE.— This verse occurs in the fourth Asclepiadean Strophe of HORACE ; also in
CATULLUS (xvii.) and the Priapea. No Elision is allowed by HORACE, and there is no
regular Caesura.
795. Glyconic.
flmlrabitur fnsolgns, HOB. -t-> | -^ <~» | ^.w | — .
NOTE. — This occurs in the second, third, and fourth Asclepiadlan strophes of
HORACE ; also in CATULLUS (xvii.) and the Priapea. There is generally the semiter-
•naria Caesura ; occasionally instead of it a Second Trochee. Elision of long syllables
is very rare in HORACE ; Elision of a short before the long of the Dactyl more often.
HORACE also shows occasional liberties, such as Diastole (0., in. 24, 5), Dialysis (<?.,i,
23, 4), and lines ending with monosyllables (0., i. 3, 19 ; 1. 19, 13 ; iv. i, 33).
796. Phalaecean (Hendecasyllabic).
x
Passer mortuus est meae puellae. ^- ^
Arida modo pumic(e) expolitum -£- > '
Tuae Lesbia smt satis superque. CAT. w : u_
NOTES.— 1. This verse, introduced into Latin by LAEVTUS, was used very often by
CATULLUS, MARTIAL, FLINT MINOR, PETRONIUS, and STATIUS, as well as in the Prid-
p&a and elsewhere.
2. In Greek the Basis was not unfrequently an Iambus. So, too, in CATULLUS,
but the tendency in Latin was to make it a Spondee ; thus, in the PriapSa, PETRONIUS,
and MARTIAL it is always so, while STATIUS has but one case of a Trochee, and AUSONIUS
but one of an Iambus.
3. The principal Caesura is the s&miqmnaria; but CATULLUS uses also almost as fre-
quently Diaeresis after the second foot. Occasionally there is a Diaeresis after the third
foot, supplemented by a Second Trochee Caesura.
4. Elision is very common in CATULLUS ; in the Priapea, MARTIAL, and later it is
very rare, if we exclude Aphaeresis from consideration. Hardening (723) is occasional,
and CATULLUS shows a few cases of Semi-hiatus. A monosyllabic ending is very rare,
with the exception of es and est.
5. CATULLUS, in 55, apparently shows a mixture of regular Phalaeceans and spurious
Phalaeceans in which the Dactyl is supplanted by a Spondee. The poem is still under
discussion.
One Dactyl, with Double Basis.
797. Sapphic (Hendecasyllabic).
x x
Audiet civgs f acuisse ferrum, HOR. — w|— >|— fv^w|— w|— w
NOTES.— 1. In the Greek measure, often retained in CATULLUS, the Dactyl is meas-
ured -w w ; in HORACE, owing to a strong Caesura after the long it is regularly v^/
478 VERSIFICATION.
Further, CATULLUS, like the Greeks, employed occasionally a Trochee in the second
foot ; HORACE made it a rule to employ only a Spondee there.
2. The regular Cfesura in Latin is the gSmigulnaria ; but the Third Trochee (784,
N. 2) is found not unfrequently in CATULLUS and HORACE, but not later. The usage
of HORACE is peculiar in this respect : In the first and second books there are seven
cases in two hundred and eighty-five verses ; in the third none at all ; in the fourth
twenty-two in one hundred and five verses ; in the Carmen S&culare nineteen in
fifty-seven verses.
3. Elision is very common in CATULLUS, but occurs in HORACE only in about one
verse in ten. Later usage tends to restrict Elision. Licenses are extremely rare in the
classical period. So HORACE shows one example of Diastole (0., n. 6,14). Mono-
syllabic endings are not common, but the word is usually attached closely with what
precedes. The last syllable is regularly long.
4. SENECA shows some peculiarities : occasionally a Dactyl in the second foot, or a
Spondee in the third ; occasionally also Dialysis.
One Dactyl with Double Basis and Anacrusis.
798. -Alcaic (Greater) Hendecasyllabic.
<-> x x
VidSs ut alta || stet nive candidum >:-^w | -z. > |A/w | j.\j | ^. ^
Soracte nee iam || sustineant onus, HOR.
NOTES. — 1. The second Basis is always a Spondee ; the few exceptions having been
emended. The Anacrusis is regularly long ; I Ion ACE shows no exception in the fourth
book and very few in the first three. The last syllable may be long or short.
2. The regular Caesura is a Diaeresis after the second foot ; HORACE shows but two
exceptions in six hundred and thirty- four verses (0., i. 37, 14 ; rv. 14, 17). A few others
show imperfect Caesurae, as O., 1. 16, 21 ; i. 37, 5 ; n. 17, 21.
3. In regard to Elision, the facts are the eaine as in the case of the Sapphic.
4. Licenses are not common : Diastole occurs in H., O., in. 5, 17 ; Hardening
(723) occurs in H., O., m. 4, 41 ; m. 6, 6. Tmesis is not unfrequent in forms of
quicumque (H., O., i. 9, 14 ; 1. 16, 2 ; i. 27, 14).
Two Dactyls.
799. Alcaic (Lesser) or Decasyllabic.
Vertere funeribus triumphos, HOR. A, <_/ | A,^ | j.^> \ j.^
NOTE. — The Caesura is regularly the sSmiternaria, occasionally the Second Trochee.
Elision occurs a little less often in this measure than in the Hendecasyllabic. The last
syllable is usually long. Diastole' occurs in H., 0., n. 13, 16.
In all these, the Dactyl has a diminished value. More questionable
is the logaoedic character of the Greater Archilochian :
800. Archilochian (Greater) = Dactylic Tetrameter and
Trochaic Tripody.
Solvitur acris hiems grata vice || vgris et Favo'ni, HOR.
VERSIFICATION. 479
If measured logaoedically, the two shorts of the Dactyl must be re-
duced in value to one (^^ = <--), and the logacedic scheme is
^f^> I ^J^l ' \^^r ' v^A_; " ' ' A
Logaoedic tetrapody + Logaocdic tetrapody with Syncope.
NOTE.— Diaeresis is always found after the fourth foot, which is always Dactylic.
The principal Caesura is the semiquinaria. In the third foot a Spondee is preferred,
whereas the Greek model has more often the Dactyl.
801. Choriambic Rhythms. — When a logacedic series is
syncopated, apparent choriambi arise. What is | -u ^ | t_ |
seems to be — ww— . Genuine choriambi do not exist in
Latin, except, perhaps, in the single line PL., Men,, no.
802. Asclepiadean (Lesser).
This verse is formed by a Catalectic Pherecratean followed by a
Catalectic Aristophanic.
Maecenas atavfs || eclite rlgibfis, x
HOR. — > | A, w | uc_ || A, w | j-v | j. ^
NOTES.— 1. There should be Diasresis, complete or incomplete (i.e., weakened by
Elision), between the two halves. Only two exceptions are cited (H., 0., n. 12, 25 ; rv.
8, 17). The Caesura is regularly the sSmiternarla in HORACE, less often the Second
Trochee.
2. Elision occurs about as often as in the Elegiac Pentameter. It occurs most often
in the first Dactyl and in the stichic measure. The final syllable may be short or
long ; but a monosyllable is rare. Licenses are likewise rare, as Diastole (H., 0., i.
3,36).
803' Asclepiadean (Greater).
Nullam Vare sacra || vite prius || seVeris arborem, HOR.
NOTE. — This verse differs from the preceding by having a Catalectic Adonic (792)
inserted between the two halves. Diasresis always separates the parts in HORACE. The
rules of Elision are the same as in the preceding verse.
804. Sapphic (Greater).
Te dees or 6 Sybarin || cur pr operas amando, HOB.
x x
J- w | ^-> |-T-»^ li-c-llAyv^ | ^.w | "-^ | — A
NOTE.— This verse differs from the lesser Sapphic by the insertion of a catalectic
Adonic. It is found only in HORACE (0., i. 8). Diaeresis always occurs after the fourth
foot, and there is also a semlqiflnaria. Caesura.
480 VEESIFICATION.
805. Priapean (Glyconic + Pherecrateari).
Hunc lucum tibi dedicQ || cdnsecroque Priape, CAT.
X X
^ > I A, w I ^ W I ut. || ^ > | A, w |^| ^ ^
NOTE.— Diaeresis always follows the Glyconic, but neither Hiatus nor Syllaba Ancepa
is allowable. The verse occurs in CAT. 17 and Priap. 85.
Cretic and Bacchic Rhythms.
806. These passionate rhythms are found not unf requently
in PLAUTUS and occasionally elsewhere. They both belong
to the Quinquepartite or Five-Eighths class.
The distribution of the Creticus is 3 + 2 morae.
The metrical value of the Creticus is — ^ — (Amphimacer).
For it may be substituted the First Paeon, — w ^ w, or the
Fourth Paeon, w ^ w— .
NOTE.— Double resolution in the same foot is not allowable, and there is rarely more
than one resolution in a verse. Instead of the middle short an irrational long is some-
times found.
807. Tetrameter Acataleetic. -f. ^ ^- \ ^.w^. | ^ w ^ | ^.w^.
Ex bonis pessura(l) et frandulentisstuni, PL., Capt., 235.
NOTE.— Resolution is not allowed at the end nor in the second foot immediately be-
fore a Csesura. The Arsis immediately preceding (i.e., of the second and fourth foot)
is regularly pure.
808. Tetrameter Catalectic. -*- ^ ^ | ^w^. | ^w^. | *.—
Da mi(hi) h6c mel metim sf m(e) amis s(i)andes, PL., Trin., 244.
NOTE. — The existence of such lines is disputed, but the balance of authority seems
to be in favor of recognising them.
809. Dimeter Acataleetic.
Nosce salt(em) hunc quis est, PL., Ps., 262. j- w ^ | ^ ^ *.
NOTE.— This verse is found usually at the close of a Cretic system, or with Trochaic
Septenarii. It follows the same rules as the Tetrameter, that is, the last long is not
resolved and the second Arsis is kept pure.
810. Acataleetic Cretic, Trimeters are rare and not always certain.
Compare PL., Trin., 267, 269, 271 ; Ps., 1119 ; Most., 338 ; Cata-
lectic Trimeters and Dimeters are even more uncertain. Compare PL.,
Trin., 275 ; True., 121.
811. The Bacchlushas the following measure : ^ -*• -^, = 1 +
2 + 2 morae (J"J J), or if the descending form -^ ^- w be re-
garded as the normal one 2+2 + 1 morae (Jj J").
VERSIFICATION. 481
For the long two shorts are sometimes substituted. On the other
hand, an irrational long may be used for the short, and occasionally
two shorts are also thus used.
812. Bacchic Tetrameter.
Quibus nee locust ullu' nee ape's parata w JL ^ \ w^^. | w^.^ | w ^ 6
Miseric6rdi6rnflllani6stf6minaram wOw^. | w^.^ | -^^.^ | w ^ 6
NOTE.— In this verse there is usually a Caesura after either the second or third
Iambus ; rarely Diaeresis after the second Bacchius. The Arsis is kept pure in the
second and fourth feet if the following long closes a word. Not more than one dissyl-
labic Arsis is allowable. Usually there is only one resolved Thesis, very rarely two,
never more than three.
813. Dimeter Acatalectic.
Ad aetat(em) agundam, PL., Trin., 232. ^ ^. ^ | ^ *. JL
NOTE.— This is rare except at the close of a Bacchic series, to form the transition
to another rhythm.
, 814. Bacchic Hexameter occurs in nine lines in a monologue in PL.,
Am., 633-642. Hypermetric combination into systems is found in PL.,
Men., 571 ff, and VABRO, Sat., p. 195 (R.).
Ionic Rhythm.
815. The Ionic Khythm is represented by lonicus a maiore
w w J J jj For the lonicus a maiore may be substituted
the Ditrochaeus - ^ — ^-. This is called Anaclasis (breaking-
up).
The verse is commonly anacrustic, so that it begins with
the thesis ^ ^ : — . Such verses are called Ionic! a minore.
The second long has a strong secondary ictus.
In the early Latin, beginning with ENNIUS, the verse was used with
much license. Resolution of the long syllables was common as well as
the use of irrational long, and the contraction of two short syllables
into a long. HORACE alone shows the pure Ionic.
The lonicus is an excited measure, and serves to express the frenzy
of distress as well as the madness of triumph.
816. Tetrameter Catalectic Ionic a maiore (Sotadeari).
This measure, introduced by ENNIUS, was used with great freedom
by the earlier poets ; but a stricter handling is found in later Latin
poets, as PETRONIUS, MARTIAL, etc.
21
482 VERIFICATION.
Nam quani varia sint genera
po&natOrum, Baebi, ^ — w ww | *. wv <^ <-» | *.v — > | ^-A
Quamque longe discinct(a) ali(a)
ab aliis, sic nSsce. — Accius. ^.^> — > \ ^ — w w | ^ «^ — > | ^_/\
Later Latin :
The most common scheme is the pure Ionic with Anaclasis, espe-
cially in the third foot. Irrational longs are not used, and there is
rarely more than one resolution, as : ^>^>— w w or — ww>^ w.
Molles vetergs Deliacl maim recisi ^ — w^^ — ww^w-£.w^ —
ter corripuf terribilein manu bipennem. ^ — ww^. — v^w-c-v^^w^ —
— PROP.
817. A combination of the Ionic a mdidre into systems is found in
LAEVIUS, who has a system of ten followed by a system of nine. Some
traces of similar arrangement have been observed in the Satires of
VARRO.
818. Tetrameter Catalectic Ionic d mindre (Cfalliambic).
This verse was introduced by VARRO in his Menippean Satires, and
appears also in CATULLUS, 63, and in some fragments of MAECENAS.
In CATULLUS the two short syllables may be contracted (ten times
in the first foot, six times in the third), and the long may be resolved,
but not twice in the same Dimeter (except 63), and very rarely in the
first foot of the second Dimeter (once in 91), but almost regularly in
the penultimate long. Diaeresis between the two Dimeters is regular.
Anaclasis is found in the majority of the lines ; regularly in the first
Dimeter (except 18, 54, 75).
The frequent resolutions and conversions give this verse a peculiarly
wild character.
Ordinary Scheme :
Without Anaclasis : ^>^^- — ^^>^. — ^^^. — ^>^>^.
With Anaclasis : v^^.^j — ^>^- — wj-v — ^j-.
Anacrustic Scheme :
Without Anaclasis : w w : *. — *~> w | ^ — f <~<w | ^. — w ^ | LZJ — |
A
With Anaclasis : ^ v: -t v>— w | -t-fv/ 0 J .e. w - v> | we*— |
A
Et ear(um) omni(a) adlrem furi-
bunda latibula wv_/_z. — ww.^. — \-»w^.ww«_»<-»js
Qu5 nos decet citatls celerare tri-
pudils — ^.w — v-/^ — ^J^^\J\J^J\JJL.
Itaqu(e) ut domum CybSbSs teti-
VEKSIFICATIOX. 483
Super alta vectus Attis celeri rate
lam iam dolet quod egl iam iam-
que paenitet. — CAT. — -e- ^> — ^ ^ -t.w — w^.
819. Dimeter Catalectic Ionic a minors (Anacreontic).
This verse is found first in LAEVIUS, then in SENECA, PETRONIUS,
and later. Anaclasis is regular in the first foot. The long syllable
may be resolved, or the two shorts at the beginning may be contracted.
The verse may end in a Syllaba Anceps.
Vener(em) igitur alm(um) adorans o-we/ww^w^.—
Sen femin(a) isve mas est — ^_ w ^ w ^ —
It(a) ut alba Noctilucast. ^ ^ -f- ^ *. ^> *. —
NOTE. — Owing to the similarity of the verse to the Iambic Quaternarius Catalectic it
is also called the HemiamMc.
Compound Verses.
820. lambelegus (Iambic Dimeter and Dactylic Trimeter Cat.).
This verse occurs only in the second ArchilocMan Strophe of
HORACE, and is often scanned as two verses :
Tu vfna TorquatS movS || consule pressa meo. — I Ion.
>:^w|^>|^^|^A I
* I I H
A "
821. Elegiambus (Dactylic Trimeter Cat. and Iambic Dimeter).
This verse occurs only in the third ArchilocMan Strophe of HORACE,
arid is often scanned as two verses :
Dg'sinet imparibus | certare submotus pudor.— HOR.
:^w | ^ | ^w | ^ A \
^i \j i /\ »
822. Versus Reizianus (Iambic Dimeter and Anapaestic Tripody
Catalectic).
Bed!, qu6 fugis nunc ? ten6 tens. || Quid stolidS clamas 1
Qni(a) ad tris viros if am) ego deferam || Nomen tuom. Qu(am) obrem 1
PL., Aul., 415.
NOTE. — From the time of REIZ, after whom this verse has been named, it has been
the subject of a great deal of discussion. In regard to the first part of the verse there
484 VERSIFICATION.
is considerable unanimity, in regard to the second opinions differ. Some regard it as
an Iambic Dimeter Catalectic Syncopated (w *. w i_c_ JL \j); others as an Iambic
Tripody Catalectic (w^.^^ — /\). SPENGEL regards it as a Hypercatalectic Ana-
paestic Monometer, and he has been followed with a variation in the nomenclature in
the above scheme. LEO regards it aa Logacedic. The most recent view (KLOTZ)
regards it as sometimes Logaoedic, and sometimes Anapaestic.
823. i- PLAUTUS shows several verses compounded of a Cretic Di-
meter and a Catalectic Trochaic Tripody. These verses are usually,
but not always, separated by Diaeresis. Examples : Ps., 1285, 1287.
2. Some authorities consider verses like PL., Most., 693, Rud., 209,
compounded of a Cretic Dimeter and a Clausula. Others regard them
as Catalectic Cretic Tetrameters.
The Cantica of Early Latin.
824. The construction of the Cantica (in 'the narrow sense) of
PLAUTUS and TERENCE is still a matter of dispute. Three opinions
have been advanced. One looks at them as antistrophic, following
the scheme A.B.B. ; others hold that the scheme is A.B.A. The third
view is that with some exceptions the Cantica are irregular composi-
tions, without a fixed principle ef responsion.
In TERENCE, Trochaic Octonarii are always followed by Trochaic
Septenarii, and very frequently the Trochaic Septenarii are followed
by Iambic Octonarii. In PLAUTUS there are long series of Cretic and
Bacchic verses, and sometimes these alternate, without, however, any
regular scheme, with other verses.
A Bacchic Trochaic Canticum is found in PL., Merc., 335-363, as
follows : I. 2 Bacc. Tetram. ; II. 4 Anap. Dim. ; III. i Troch. Octon. ;
IV. 13 Bacc. Tetram.; V. i Troch. Octon.; VI. 2 Bacc. Tetram.; VII.
1 Troch. Octon. ; VIII. 2 Bacc. Tetram. ; IX. 2 Troch. Octon.
A Trochaic Iambic Canticum is TER.,PA., 153-163. A. 153-157 :
2 Troch. Octon.; i Troch. Sept.; i Iamb. Octon. B. 158-163; i Troch.
Octon. ; 2 Troch. Sept. ; 3 Iamb. Octon. ; i Iamb. Quater. (Clausula).
The Cantica of Later Latin.
825. i- The Cantica of SEXECA are composed mostly in Anapaestic
Dimeters, closed frequently, though not necessarily, by a Monometer.
A Dactyl is common in the first and third feet. The Spondee is like-
wise very common, a favourite close being — vJ/ ^ — -f- . The Diaeresis
between the Dimeters is regular. Examples : Here. Fur., 125-203.
In Ag., 310-407, Dimeters and Monometers alternate.
2. Iambic Dimeters, occasionally alternating with Trimeters, but
usually stichic, are found occasionally ; as Med., 771-786.
VERSIFICATION. 48$
3. Peculiar to SENECA is the use of a large variety of Logacedic
measures in his Cantica. So we find not unf requently the following
in stichic repetition: Lesser Asclepiad5ans, Glyconics, Sapphic Hen-
decasyllabics, Adonics, and other imitations of Horatian measures ;
but there are few traces of antistrophic arrangement.
Lyric Metres of Horace.
826. In the schemes that follow, the Roman numerals refer to
periods, the Arabic to the number of feet or bars, the dots indicate
the end of a line.
I. Asclepiadean Strophe No. 1. Lesser Asclepiadean Verse (802)
repeated in tetrastichs.
-> I-- 1^-1-- i -^ I -A I
/\ o
O.,i. i; in. 30; iv. 8.
II. Asclepiadean Strophe No. 2. Glyconics (795) and Lesser
Asclepiadean (802) alternating, and so forming tetrastichs.
0., i. 3, 13, 19, 36; in. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv. i, 3.
III. Asclepiadean Strophe No. 3. Three Lesser Asclepiadean Verses
(802) followed by a Glyconic (795).
A
-> I -vv, I _w I - 4
0., i. 6, 15, 24, 33; ii. 12; in. 10, 16; iv. 5, 12.
486 VERSIFICATION.
IV. Asclepiadean Strophe No. 4. Two Lesser Asclepiadean Verses
(802), a Pherecratean (794), and a Glyconic (795).
-> I -V
II. -> I *»
-> I —
0., I. 5, 14, 21, 23; m. 7, 13; iv. 13.
V. Asclepiadean Strophe No. 5. Greater Asclepiadean (803), re-
peated in fours.
->|-uor|i-|*vw|,_|-v+|-.v|- .| $
A 2
3
II 3
2
I
->
O.t I. ii, 18; iv. 10.
VI. Sapphic Strophe. Three Lesser Sapphics (797), and an Adonic
(792), which is merely a Clausula. In the Sapphic HORACE regularly
breaks the Dactyl.
x x
— - | -> | — f-^ | — w | -w || 5
x x
-w | — > | -f^ | -w | -w I 5
- 5
0., I. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, io, 16; in. 8, ii,
14, 18, 20, 22, 27; iv. 2, 6, ii ; Carmen Saeculare.
NOTE.— In Greek the third and fourth verses ran together to form a single verse.
In Latin this is rare ; one case is found in CATTTLLUS, n, 11, and three in HORACE, 0.,
i. 2, 19 ; 25, 11 ; n. 16, 7 ; but the occurrence of Hiatus between the two lines in HOBACB
(0., i. 2, 47 ; 12, 7 ; 12, 31 ; 22, 15, etc.) may be considered as indicating that the verses
were conceived as separate. Elision and Hiatus are also occasionally found in the
lines. Elision, second and third: CAT., ii, 22; H., 0., n. 2, 18 ; 16, 34; iv. 2,22;
third and fourth : CAT., n, 19 ; H., 0., iv. 2, 23 ; C.S., 47. Hiatus, first and second :
H., 0., i. 2, 41 ; 12, 25 ; n. 16, 5 ; ni. iz, 29 ; 27, 33 ; second and third : H., 0., i. 2, 6 ;
12, 6 ; 25, 18 ; 30, 6 ; n. 2, 6 ; 4, 6 ; m. n, 50 ; 27, 10.
VERSIFICATION.
487
VII. Lesser Sapphic, Strophe. Aristophanic '(TC)3), and Greater
Sapphic (804). Two pairs are combined into a tetrastich.
A
A
VIII. Alcaic Strophe. Two Alcaic verses of eleven syllables (798),
a Trochaic Quaternarius with Anacrusis (772), and one Alcaic verse of
ten (799).
>
I. w
>
\J
II. >
I. 5
n.
4
4
0., i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37 ; n. i, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14,
15, 17, 19, 20; in. i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; IV. 4, 9, 15, 17.
NOTE. — Elision between the verses is much more rare than in the Sapphic strophe ;
it occurs but twice : 0., n. 3, 27 ; in. 29, 35. Hiatus, on the other hand, is very common.
IX. Archilochian Strophe No. 1. A Dactylic Hexameter (784), and
a Lesser Archilochian (788), two pairs to a tetrastich.
— w v-/ I
• w w
V^l v^/
a, iv. 7.
X. Archilochian Strophe No. 2. A Dactylic Hexameter (784), and
an lambelegus (820).
v-> >_/ I — ^
Epod., 13.
488 VERSIFICATION*.
XI. Archilochian Strophe No. 3. An Iambic Trimeter (762), fol-
lowed by an Elegiambus (821).
Epod., ii.
XII. Archilochian Strophe No. 4. A Greater Archilochian (800),
and a Trimeter Iambic Catalectic (763). Two pairs combined to form
a tetrastich.
0., i. 4.
This verse may be considered as Logaoedic, thus (800) :
A^|_vJ— V/|l— 1— ^
I -I -A I
^ I -^ I II I II II 4
~v^, I "v^, I "^ 1 ~W I ~^ I •- I ~A II I
XIII. Alcmanian Strophe. A Dactylic Hexameter (784), followed
by a Catalectic Dactylic Tetrameter (787).
0., i. 7, 28; Epod., 12.
NOTE.— The Tetrameter may be considered acatalectic with a Spondee in the fourth
place (787, N.).
XIV. Iambic Trimeter repeated (762).
Epod., 17.
XV. Iambic Strophe. Iambic Trimeter (762), and Dimeter (765).
Epod., 1-10.
VERSIFICATION. 489
XVI. Pythiambic Strophe No. 1. A Dactylic Hexameter (784), or
Versus Pythius, and an Iambic Dimeter (765).
Epod., 14, 15.
XVII. Pythiambic Strophe No. 2. A Dactylic Hexameter (784), and
an Iambic Trimeter (760).
Epod., 16,
XVIII. Trochaic Strophe. A Catalectic Trochaic Dimeter (772),
and a Catalectic Iambic Trimeter (763). Two pairs make a tetra-
stich.
0., ii. 18.
XIX. The Ionic System is found once in HORACE ; it consists of ten
lonicl 5 minore feet, variously arranged by metrists. Some regard the
system as composed of ten Tetrameters followed by a Dimeter. Others,
with more probability, divide into two Dimeters followed by two Tri-
meters. The scheme may be made a" maiore by Anacrusis.
lOnicus a minore scheme :
Miserarum(e)st neque amSrl ^ ^ ^. — ww^— |
dare ludum neque dulcl w^-^. — «-»^^.— |
mala vln6 laver(e) aut exanimarl ww^ — «^w^ — WW^-L— ||
metuentes patruae vertera linguae w<->^. — <^^^. — w<^^.— |
lonicus a maiore scheme :
A
0., III. 12.
490
VERSI
827. INDEX OF HORATIAN ODES AND METRES.
BOOK. ODE.
I. 1
METRE.
.... i.
BOOK. ODE.
II. 1
METRE.
. . . viii.
BOOK. ODE. Mi
HI. 18
!TBE.
vi.
ii.
vi.
viii.
vi.
viii.
ii.
ii.
viii.
vi.
ii.
viii.
i.
ii.
vi.
ii.
viii.
iii.
vi.
ix.
i.
viii.
V.
vi.
iii.
iv.
viii.
viii.
vi.
XV.
xi.
xiii.
X.
xvi.
xvi.
xvii.
xiv.
2
.... vi.
2
vi.
19
3... .
... ii.
3
. . . viii.
20
4
.... X.
4
... vi
21
5
.... iv.
5
. . . viii.
22 . .
6... .
iii
fi. .
vi.
23
7
.... xiii. 7
. . . viii.
24
8
vii. 8
. . . vi.
25
9
.... viii.
9
. . . viii.
26
10
... vi.
10
... vi.
27
11
... V.
11
. . . viii
28
12
.... vi.
12
iii.
29 ..
13
.... ii.
13
. . . viii.
30
14
.... iv.
14
. . . viii
IV 1
15
.... iii.
15
. . , viii.
16
.... viii.
16
... vi.
2
17
.... viii.
17
. . . viii.
3
18
.... V.
18
. . . xviii.
4
19
.... ii.
19
. . . viii.
5
20 ...
. . . vi.
20
. . . viii.
6
21
.... iv
III. 1
2
. . . viii.
. . . viii.
7
22
23
.... vi.
iv.
8
9
24
.... iii.
3
. . . viii.
10
25 .
vi
4 ..
. . viii.
11
26 .
. viii.
5 ...
. . . viii.
12
27
. . viii
6
. . . viii.
13
28 ..
. . xiii
7
iv.
14
29 ...
. . viii.
8
vi.
15
30
.... vi.
9 .. .
. . . . ii.
Carmen Saeculare
Epod. 1-10
31
.... viii.
10
iii.
. 32
. . . vi.
11
vi.
11
33
. . . iii.
12
. . . xix.
12
34... .
.... viii.
13
. . . . iv.
13
35
.... viii.
14
... vi.
14
36
.... ii.
15
... ii.
15
37
. viii.
16
. . . iii.
16
88..
. vi.
17..
. viii.
17..
APPENDIX.
ROMAN CALENDAR.
The names of the Roman months were originally adjectives. The
substantive mgnsis, month, may or may not be expressed : (me"nsis)
lanuarius, Februarius, and so on. Before Augustus, the months July
and August were called, not lulius and Augustus, but Qulntllis and
Sextilis.
The Romans counted backward from three points in the month,
Calends (Kalendae), Nones (N5nae), and Ides (Idus), to which the names
of the months are added as adjectives : Kalendae lanuariae, Nonae Fe-
bruariae, Idus Martiae. The Calends are the first day, the Nones the
fifth, the Ides the thirteenth. In March, May, July, and October the
Nones and Ides are two days later. Or thus :
In March, July, October, May,
The Ides are on the fifteenth day,
The Nones the seventh ; but all besides
Have two days less for Nones and Ides.
In counting backward (" come next Calends, next Nones, next Ides ")
the Romans used for "the day before" prldig with the Ace.: prldie
Kalendas lanuarias, Dec. 31 ; prldie Nonas Ian. - Jan. 4 ; prldie Idus Ian.
= Jan. 12.
The longer intervals are expressed by ante diem tertium, quartum,
etc., before the Accusative, so that ante diem tertium Kal. Ian. means
"two days before the Calends of January; " ante diem quartum, or a. d.
iv., or iv. Kal. Ian., "three days before," and so on. This remarkable
combination is treated as one word, so that it can be used with the
prepositions ex and in : ex ante diem iii. Nonas lunias usque ad prldie
Kal. Septembrgs, from June 3 to August 31 ; differre aliquid in ante diem
xv. Kal. Nov., to postpone a matter to the 18th of October.
LEAP YEAR. — In leap year the intercalary day was counted between
a. d. vi. Kal. Mart, and a. d. vii. Kal. Mart. It was called a. d. bis sex-
turn Kal. Mart., so that a. d. vii. Kal. Mart, corresponded to our February
23, just as in the ordinary year.
To turn Roman Dates into English.
For Nones and Ides. — I. Add one to the date of the Nones and Ides,
and subtract the given number.
492
ROMAN SYSTEMS OF MEASURE AND WEIGHT.
For Calends. — II. Add two to the days of the preceding month, and
subtract the given number.
EXAMPLES : a. d. viii. Id. Ian. (13 + 1 — 8) = Jan. 6 ; a. d. iv. NSn.
Apr. (5 + 1 - 4) = Apr. 2; a. d. xiv. Kal. Oct. (30 + 2 - 14) = Sept. 18.
Year. — To obtain the year B.C., subtract the given date from 754
(753 B.C. being the assumed date of the founding of Rome, anno urbis
conditae). To obtain the year A.D., subtract 753.
Thus : Cicero was born 648, a. u. c. = 106 B.C.
Augustus died 767, a. u. c. = 14 A.D.
NOTE.— Before the reform of the Calendar by Julius Caesar in B.C. 46, the year
consisted of 355 days, divided into twelve months, of which March, May, Quintllis
(July), and October had 31 days, February 28, the remainder 29. To rectify the
Calendar, every second year, at the discretion of the Pontifices, a month of varying
length, called mSnsis intercalaris, was inserted after the 23d of February.
ROMAN SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT.
LONG
MEASURE.
SQUARE MEASURE.
4 digit!
4 palm!
= i palmus.
= i p6s (11.65 in.).
TOO pedes, ) = , 8crlpulum4
quadratl '
6 palmi, )
= i cnbitus.
36 scripula = i clima.
i^ pedes J
4 climata = i actus.
2 i pedes
= i gradus.
2 actus = i iugerum (acre).
2 gradus, i
5 pedes •
= i passus.
The iugerum contains 28,800
125 passus
- i stadium.
sq. ft. Rom.;
8 stadia
= i niille passuum
Eng. acre = 43,560 sq. ft.
(mile).
DRY
MEASURE.
LIQUID MEASURE.
i i, cyathi
= i acetabulum.
i£ cyathi = i acetabulum.
2 acetabula
-- i quartarius.
2 acetabula = i quartarius.
2 quartaril
: I hemina.
2 quartaril — i hemina.
2 heminae
= i sextarius.
2 heminae = i sextarius (pint).
8 sextarii
= i semodius.
6 sextarii = i congius.
2 sSmodil
= i modius (peck).
4 congil = i urna.
2 urnae = i amphora.
20 amphorae = i culleus.
ROMAN
WEIGHTS.
3 siliquae
= i obolus.
2 sicilicl — i sgmuncia.
2 oboll = i scrlpulum.
2 scripula -- i drachma.
2 drachmae — i sicilicus.
2 semunciae = i uncia.
12 unciae _ i libra (pound).
ROMAN MONEY AND NAMES. 493
NOTES.— 1. The multiples of the fincia were sSscuncia (!}), sextans (2), qua-
drans (3), trigns (4), quincunx (5), sgmis (6), septunx (7), bes (8), dodrSns (9), dex-
tans (10), deunx (11).
2. The libra was also called as (see below), which latter is taken as the unit in all
measures, and the foregoing divisions applied to it. Hence, by substituting as for
iugerum. we have deunx as JJ of a iugerum, dextans as { j, etc.
ROMAN MONEY.
The unit was originally the as (which was about a pound of copper),
with its fractional divisions. This gradually depreciated, until, after
the second Punic war, the unit had become a sSstertius, which was
nominally 2£ assSs.
2 1 assSa = i sestertius (about 25 denarii = i aureus (minimus).
4 cts.). looo sSsterti!= i sestertium
2 sestertii = i qulnarius. ($42.94 to Augustus's time).
2 quinaril = i denarius.
NOTE.— SSstertium (which may be a fossilised Gen. PL = sSstertiorum) was
modified by distributives (rarely by cardinals), thus : blna sSstertia, 2000 sesterces.
But in multiples of a million (deciSns centena mllia sestertium, ?'. «., sester-
tiSrum), centSna mllia was regularly omitted, and sestertium declined as a neuter
singular. HS stands as well for sestertius as sestertium ; and the meaning is regu-
lated by the form of the numeral ; thus HS vlgintl (XX) — 20 s6stertil ; HS vicSna
(XX) = 20 sSstertia, i.e., 20,000 sestertii.
ROMAN NAMES.
The Roman usually had three names ; a nomen, indicating the g6ns,
a cognomen, indicating the familia in the g6ns, and the praenomen, indi-
cating the individual in the familia.
The nomina all end in ius. The cognomina have various forms, in
accordance with their derivation. For example : Q. Mucius Scaevola
(from scaevos, left hand).
The praenomina are as follows, with their abbreviations:
Aulus,
A.
Lucius,
L.
Quintus,
Q.
Appius,
App.
Marcus,
M.
Servius,
Ser.
Gains,
C.
Manius,
M'.
Sextus,
Sex.
Gnaeus,
On.
Mamercus,
Mam.
Spurius,
Sp.
Decimus,
D.
Numerius,
Num.
Titus,
T.
Kaeso,
K.
Publius.
P.
Tiberius,
Ti., Tib.
NOTES.— 1. Adoption from one gens into another was indicated by the termination
-ianus. From the fourth century A.D. a second cSgnomen was also called an
agnomen.
2. Daughters had no peculiar praen5mina, but were called by the name of the gens
in which they were born. If there were two, they wore distinguished as maior and
minor ; if more than two, by the numerals tertia, quarta, etc.
494
INDEX OF VERBS.
INDEX OF VERBS.
[The References are to the Sections.]
Ab-do, ere, -did!, -ditum, 151, i.
ab-igo (AGO), ere, -egl, -Sctum,
160, i.
ab-icio (IACIO), ere, -iecl, -iectum,
160, 3.
ab-lu5, ere, -lul, -lutum, 162.
ab-nuo, ere, -nul (-nuiturus), 162.
ab-oleo, ere, evi, itum, 137, b.
ab-olesco, -ere, -olevi, -olitum, 140.
ab-ripio (RAPIO), -ere, -ripul, -rep-
turn, 146.
abs-condo (DO), ere, -di (-didi),
ditum, 151, i.
ab-sisto, -ere, -stiti, 154, i.
ab-sum, -esse, ab-ful, a-ful, 117.
ac-eend<5, -ere, -cendl, -censum,
160, 2.
ac-cido (CADO), ere, -cidi, 165, a.
ac-cipio (CAPIO), ere, -cepi, -cep-
tum, 160, 3.
ac-colo (COLO), ere, -colul, -cultum,
152, 3-
ac-cumbo, ere, -cubul, -cubitum,
144.
ac-curro, ere, ac-curri, -cursum,
155, 134, in.
aceo, ere, acul, to be sour.
acesco, ere, acul, to get sour.
ac-quiro (QUAERO), ere, -quisivl,
-qulsltum, 137, c.
acuo, ere, acul, aciitum, 162.
ad-do, ere, -didi, -ditum, 151, i.
ad-imo (EMO), ere, -eml, -5mptum,
160, i.
ad-iplscor, I, ad-eptus sum, 165.
ad-iuvo, are, -iuvl, -iutum, 158.
ad-oleseo, ere, -olevi, -ultum, 140.
ad-orior, -orlrl, -ortus sum, 166.
ad-selsco, ere, -scivi, -scitum, 140.
ad-sisto, ere, -stiti, 154, i.
ad-spicio, ere, -spexi, -spectum,
150, i.
ad-sto, -stare, -stiti, 151, 2.
ad-sum, ad-esse, ad-ful (af-fui),
117.
ad-vesperasco, ere, avi, 140.
aegresco, ere, to fall sick.
af-fero, -ferre, at-tuli, al-latuin,
171.
af-fllgo, ere, -flixi, -flictum, 147, 2.
ag-gredior, -gredl, -gressus, 165.
a-gnosco, ere, a-gnovl, a-gnitum
(agnoturus), 140.
ago, ere, egl, actum, 160, i.
jiio, 175, i.
albeo, 5re, to be tchite.
algeo, ere, alsi, 147, i.
lex!
al-licio, ere,/ ,.'--. -lectum, i50, i.
al-luo, ere, -lul, -lutum, 162.
alo, ere, alul, al(i)tum, 142, 3.
amb-igo (AGO), ere, 172, i.
amb-io (EO), Ire, Ivi (il), Itum, 169,
2, R. I.
amicio, Ire, ' amictum
142, 4, 161.
amplector, I, amplexus, 165.
ango, ere, anxl, 149, b.
an-nuo, ere, annul (annutum), 162.
ante-cello, ere, 154.
ante-sto, -stare, -stetl, 151, 2.
a-perio, -Ire, aperul, apertum,
142, 4.
apiscor, I, aptus sum, 165.
ap-peto, ere, ivi, Itum, 147, c.
an nlico are 'Plicu1' -plicitum,
ap-plico, are, (.piicavl,-plicatum),
152, 2.
ap-pono, ere, -posul, -positum,
139, A.
arcesso (accerso), ere, arcesslvl,
-Itum, 137, e.
ardeo, ere, SrsI, arsum, 147, i.
aresco, ere, ami, to become dry.
ar-ripio (RAPIO), ere, ui, -reptum,
146.
a-scendo (SCANDO), ere, I, scensum,
160, 2.
3-spicio, ere, a-spexl, a-spectum,
150, i.
as-sentior, Irl, assensus sum, 166.
as-sideo (sEDEd), ere, -sedi, -ses-
sum, 159.
as-suesco, ere, -suevl)-suetum,140.
at-tendo, ere, -tendl, -tentuin, 155.
INDEX OF VERBS.
495
at-texo, ere, -texul, -textum, 152,3.
at-tineo (TENEO), ere, ul, -tentura,
135, I. a.
at-tingo (TANGO), ere, attigl, attac-
tura, 155.
at-tollo, ere, to raise up.
audeo, ere, ausus sum, 167.
audio, Ire, ivi, itum. See 127.
au-fero, -ferre, abstull, abhTtum,
171.
augeo, ere, auxi, auctum, 147, i.
ave, 175, 4.
Balbutio, ire, to stutter.
batuo, ere, ul, 162.
bibo, ere, bib!, (bibitum), 154, 2.
Cado, ere, cecidi, casum, 153.
caecutio, ire, to be blind.
caedo, ere, cecidi, caesum, 153.
calefacio, ere, -feel, -factum, 160,
3; 173, N. 2.
calesco, ere, calui, to get warm.
calleo, ere, ul, to be skilled.
calveo, ere, to be bald.
candeo, ere, ul, to shine.
caneo, ere, to be gray.
cano, ere, cecini, eantum, 153.
capesso, ere, Ivi, itum, 137, c.
capio, ere, cepi, captum, 126;
160,3-
carpo, ere, carpsi, carptum, 147, 2.
caveo, ere, cavl, cautum, 159.
cedo, 175, 6.
cedo, ere, cessi, cessum, 147, 2.
cenatus, 167, N. 1.
- cSnsum, 10r
censeo, ere, m, (cgnsltu'8)>135, 1. a.
cerno, ere, crevi, (cretum), 139.
cingo, ere. cinxl, cinctum, 149, b.
eircum-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum,
151, i.
circum-sisto, ere, stetl, 154, i.
circum-sto, stare, stetl, 151, 2.
claudo, ere, claxisi, clausum, 147, 2.
clepo, ere, 9 fP*. \ cleptum, 147, 2.
co-alesco, ere, -aim, (-alitum), 140,
145.
co-arguo, ere, ul, 162.
co-emo, ere, -5ml, -em(p)tum,
160, i.
coepi, coepisse, 175, 5, a.
co-gnosco, ere, -gnovi, -gnitum,
140.
co-go (AGO), ere, co-egi, co-actum,
160, i.
col-lido (LAEDO), ere, -Us!, llsum,
147, 2.
col-ligo (LEGO), ere, -l5gi, -lectuni,
160, i.
col-luceo, Ere, -luxl, 157, i.
colo, ere, colul, cultum, 142, 3.
com-buro, ere, -ussi, -ustum,147,2.
com-edo, ere, -5di, -esum (estum),
172.
comitatus, 167, N. 1.
comminlscor, I, commentus sum,
165.
com-moveo, ere, -movl, -motum,
159.
co-mo (EMO), ere, compsi, comp-
tum, 147, 2.
com-parco,ere,-parsi,-parsum,153.
com-pello, ere, com-pull, -pulsum,
155.
com-perio (PARIO), ire, corn-perl,
com-per-tum, 161, 166.
compBsco, ere, ul, 145.
com-pingo, ere, -p5gi, -pactum,
160, 2.
com-plector, I, corn-plexus, 165.
com-pleo, ere, 5vi, 6tum, 147.
com-primo (PBEMO), ere, -press!,
-pressum, 147, 2.
com-pungo, ere, -punxi, -punctum,
155.
con-cido (CADO), ere, -cidl, 153, a.
con-cido (CAEDO), ere, -cidl, -cisum,
153, a.
con-cino (CANO), ere, -cinui, 142, 3.
concitus (CIEO), 137, b.
con-cludo (CLAUDO), ere, -clusi,
-clusum, 147, 2.
con-cumbo, ere, -cubul, -cubitum,
144.
con-cuplsco, ere, -cupivi, cupltum,
140.
con-cutio (QUATIO), ere, -cussl, -cus-
sum, 147, 2.
con-do, ere, -didl, -ditum, 151, i.
con-dormisco, -ere, -Ivi, itum, 140.
con-fercio (FARCIO), ire (fersi), fer-
tum, 150, 2.
con-fero, -ferre, -tull, collatum,
171.
con-ficio (FACio),ere, -fec!,-fectum,
160, 3.
496
INDEX OF VERBS.
con-fiteor (FATEOR), eri, -fessus,
164.
con-fligo, ere, -flixl, -fllctura,
147, 2.
con-fringo (FRANGO), ere, -fregi,
-fractum, 160, 2.
con-gruo, ere, congrui, 162.
con-icio (IACIO), ere, -iecl, -iectum,
160. 3.
coniiiratus, 167, N. 1.
co-nlveo, Sre, — g^ 147, ,
con-quiro (QUAERO), ere, -quisivl,
-quisitum, 137, c.
con-sero, ere, -serul, -sertum,
152, 3.
con-sero, ere, -sBvI, -situm, 138.
con-sideratus, 167, N. 1.
con-sido, ere, consfidi, -sessum,
160, i.
con-sisto, ere, -stitl, -stitum, 154, i.
con-spergo, ere, -spersl, -spersum,
147, 2.
con-spicio, ere, -spexi, -spectum,
150, i.
con-stituo (STATUO), ere, ui, -stitu-
tum, 162.
con-sto, -stare, -stitl, (constatu-
rus), 151, 2.
con-suesc5, ere, -suevl, suBtum,
140; 175, 5.
cSnsulO, ere, consulul, -sultum,
142, 3.
con-temno, ere, -tem(p)sl, -tem(p)-
tum, 149, c.
con-tendo, ere, -tendl, -tentum,
155.
con-texo, ere,-texul,-textum,152,3.
con-tineo (TENEO), ere, in, -tentum,
135, i. a.
con-ting5 (TANGO), ere, contigi,
contactum, 155.
convaleseO, ere, -valul, -valitum,
145.
coquo, ere, coxi, coctum, 147, 2,
168, i.
cor-ripio (RAPIO), ere, -ripul, -rep-
turn, 146.
cor-ruo, ere, corrul, 162.
crebresco, ere, crebrul, to get fre-
quent.
cre-do, ere, -did!, -ditum, 151, i.
crepo, are, ere pui.crepi turn, 142, 2.
cresco, ere, crevi, cretum, 140.
cubo, are, cubui, cubitum, 142, 2.
cudo, ere, cudl, cusum, 160, i.
cupio, ere, cuplvi, cupltum, 141.
curro, ere, cucurri, cursum, 155.
De-eerno, ere, -cr5vi, -cretum, 139.
de-cerpo (CARPO), ere, si, turn, 147,
2.
de-do, dedere, dedidl, deditum,
151, i.
de-fendo, ere, -fendi, -fensum, 160,
2.
defetiscor, I, to be worn out.
de-g5 (AGO), ere, 160, I.
deleo. See Paradigm, 123, 124.
de-libuo, uere, ui, titum, 162.
de-ligo, ere, -legl, -Iectum, 160, i.
de-mo (EMO), ere, dempsi, demp-
tum, 147, 2.
depello, ere, depuli, depulsum, 155.
de-primo (PREMO), ere, -pressl,
pressum, 147, 2.
depsS, ere, depsui, depstum, 142, 3.
de-scendo (SCANDO), ere, -scendi,
-scensum, 160, 2.
de-sero, ere, -serul, -sertum, 142, 3.
cle-silio (SALIO), tr*
de-sino, ere, ' desitum, 139.
de-sipio (SAPIO), -ere, 141.
d5-sisto, ere, -stitl, -stitum, 154, i.
de-spicio, ere, -spexi, -spectum,
150, i.
de-su5sco, -ere, -evi, -5tum, 140.
d5-sum, -esse, -fui, 117.
de-tendo, ere, -tendl, -tentum, 155.
de-tineo (TENEO), 5re, -ui, -tentum,
135, i. a.
de-vertor, -I, 167.
dicO, ere, dixi, dictum, 147, 2.
dif-fero, -ferre, distull, dilatum,
171.
dl-gnosco (NOSCO), ere, -gnovl, 140.
di-ligo, ere, -lexl, -Iectum, 147, 2.
di-mico, are, avl, atum, 142, 2.
dl-rigo, ere, -rexi, -rectum, 147, 2.
dir-imo (EMO), ere, -Bml, -emptum,
160, i.
disco, ere, didicT, 156.
dis-crep5, are, -crepui (Svl), 142, 2.
dis-cumbo. ere, -cubui, -cubitum,
144.
dis-pescO, ere, -p5scul, to divide,
145.
dis-sideo (SEUEO), ere, -sedi, 159.
INDEX OF VERBS.
497
di-stinguo, ere, -stinxi, -stinctum,
149, b.
dl-stS, -stare, 151, 2.
ditesco, ere, to grow rich.
divido, ere, dlvisi, divisum, 147, 2.
do, dare, dedl, datum, 151, i.
doceo, ere, docui, doctum, 135, i, a.
dorno, are, ui, itum, 143, 2.
diico, ere, duxl, ductum, 147, 2
dulcEsco, ere, to grow sweet.
duresco, ere, durul, to grow hard.
Ed5, ere, edl, esum, 160, i, 172.
e-do (DO), edere, 5didi, editum,
151, i.
e-dormisco, -ere, -Ivi, -Itum, 140.
ef-fero, -ferre, extull, elatum, 171.
egeo, ere, egul, to want.
e-licio, ere, -licul, -licitum, 150, i.
e-ligO (LEGO), ere, -l6gi, -lectum,
160, i.
e-mico, are, ui (atiirus), 142, 2.
emineo, ere, ui, to stand out.
emo, ere, emi, emptum, 160, i.
emungo, ere, emunxl, emuncturn,
149, b.
tillGCUl
e-nec5, are. ,_ ' ,. Snectum,
(enecavl),
142, 2.
e5, ire, Ivi, itum, 169, 2.
e-vado, ere, 5vasi, evSsum, 147, 2.
e-vSneseo, ere, evSnui, 145.
ex-ardesco, ere, exarsi, exSrsum,
147, i.
ex-cello, ere, ui (excelsus), 144.
excitus, 137.
ex-cliido (CLAUDO), ere, -si, -sum,
147, 2.
ex-currO, ere, ex(cu)currl, -cur-
sum, 155.
ex-imo, ere, emi, -emptum, 160, i.
ex-ol5sco, ere, -olevi, -oletum, 140.
ex-pello, ere, -pull, -pulsum, 155.
expergiscor, I, experrectus sum,
165.
ex-perior, in, -pertus sum, 166.
ex-pleO, ere, evi, etum, 124, 137,
b.
ex-plico, are, ui (avi), itum (atum),
142.
ex-plodo (PLAUDO), ere, -si, -sum,
147, 2.
exsecratus, 167, N. 2.
ex-stinguo, ere, -stinxi, -stinctum,
149, b.
33
ex-sistf), ere, -stitl, -stitum, 154, i,
ex-sto, are (exstaturus), 151, 2.
ex-tendo, ere, di, -sum (-turn), 155.
ex-tollo, ere, 155.
ex-uo, ere, -ui, -utum, 162.
Facesso, ere, Ivi (-1), itum, 137, c
faciO, ere, feel, factum, 160, 3.
fallo, ere, fefelli, falsum, 155.
farcio, Ire, farsl, fartum, 150, 2.
fan, 175, 3.
fateor, Bri, fassus sum, 164.
fatlsco, ere, to fall apart.
fatlscor, I (fessus, adj.).
faveo, ere, favi, fautum, 159.
ferio, ire, to strike.
fero, ferre, tuli, latum, 171.
ferveo, ere, fervl (ferbui), 159.
fldO, ere, fisus sum, 167!
flgO, ere, fixi, fixum, 147, 2.
flndo, ere, fidl, fissum, 160, 3.
fingo, ere, finxi, fictum, 149, a.
flo, fieri, factus sum, 173.
flecto, ere, flexi, flexum, 148.
fleo, ere, evi, etum, 137, b.
fllgO, ere, fllxi, flictum, 147, 2.
floreo, ere, ui, to bloom.
fluO, ere, fluxl (fluxus, adj.), 147,2.
fodio, ere, fodi, fossum, 160, 3.
forem, 116.
foveo, ere, fovi, fotum, 159.
frango, ere, fregl, fractum, 160, 2.
fremo, ere, ui, 142, 3.
frendo (eo), ere (ui), fresum, fres
sum, 144.
frico, are, ui, frictum (atum), 142
2.
frigeo, Ere (frixi), 147, i.
frigo, ere, frixi, frictum, 147, 2.
frondeo, ere, ui, to be leafy.
f ruor, I, f ructus (fruitus) sum, 165.
fugio, ere, fugl, fugitum, 160, 3.
fulcio, Ire, fulsi, fultum, 150, 2.
fulgeo, ere, fulsi, 147, i.
fundo, ere, fudi, fusum, 160, 2.
fungor, I, functus sum, 165.
(furo, def.), furere, to rave.
Gannio, Ire, to yelp.
gaudeo, ere, gavisus sum, 167.
gemo, ere, ui, 142, 3.
gero, ere, gessi, gestum, 147, 2.
glgno, ere, genul, genitum, 143.
glisco, ere, to sicell.
gradior, I, gressus sum, 165,
498
IXDEX OF VERBS.
Haereo, 5re, haesi, (haesura), 147,
i.
haurio, ire, hausi, haustum (hau-
surus, hausturus), 150, 2.
have, 175, 4.
hisco, ere, to yawn.
horreo, ere, ui, to stand on end
hortor, Sri, atus sum, 128.
laceS, ere, iacui, to lie.
iacio, ere, i6ei, iactum, 160, 3.
Ico, ere, ici, ictum, 160, i.
I-gnosco, ere, -gnovi, -gnotum,
140.
il-lici5, ere, -lexi, -lectum, 150, i.
il-lido (LAEDO), ere, -llsl, -Hsum,
147, 2.
irabuS, ere, ui, utum, 162.
imitatus, 167, N. 2.
immineo, ere, to overhang.
im-pingo (PANGO), ere, pegi, pSc-
tum, 160, 2.
in-calesco, ere, -calm, 145.
in-cendo, ere, -cendl, -censum,
160, 2.
incesso, ere, Ivi (T), 137, c.
in-cido (CADO), ere, -cidl, -casum,
152.
in-cido (CAEDO), ere, -cidl, cisum,
153.
in-cipio (CAPIO), ere, -cepl, -cep-
tum, 160, 3.
in-crepo, are, ui, itum, 142, 2.
in-cumbo, ere, -cubul, -cubitum,
144.
in-cutiO (QUATIO), ere, -cussi, -cus-
sum, 147, 2.
ind-igeo (EGEO), ere, ui, to want.
ind-iplscor, I, indeptus sum, 165.
in-do, ere, -didi, -uitum, 151, i.
indulgeo, ere, indulsi (indultum),
147, i.
in-duo, ere, -dm, -dutum, 162.
ineptio, Ire, to be silly.
in-fllgo, ere, -fllxi, -fllctum, 147, 2.
ingemisco, ere, ingemui, 145.
ingruo, ere, ui. See congruo, 162.
in-notesco, ere, notui, 145.
in-olesco, ere, -ol5vl, 140.
inquam, 175, 2.
In-sideo (SEDEO), ere, -sedi, -ses-
sum, 159.
In-sisto, ere, -stitl, 154, i.
in-spicio, ere, -spexl, -spectum.
150, i.
inter-ficio, ere, -feci, -fectum, 160,
3; 173, N. 2.
in-sto, are,-stitl (instaturus),151,2.
In-sum, -esse, -ful, 117.
intel-lego, ere, -lexi, -lectum, 147, 2.
inter-imo (EMO), ere, -emi, -einp-
tum, 160, i.
inter-pungo, ere, -punxl, -punc-
turn, 155.
inter-sto, are, -stetl, 151, 2.
inter-sum, -esse, -ful, 117.
inveterasco, ere, -5vi, 140.
in-vado, ere, invasi, -vasum,147, 2.
IrSscor, I, iratus sum, to get angry.
iubeo, ere, iussi, iiissum, 147, i.
iungS, ere, iunxl, iunctum, 149, b.
iurStus, 167, K. 1.
iuv5, Sre, iuvl, iutum (iuvatarus),
158.
Labor, I, lapsus sum, 165.
lacesso, ere, lacessivi, -itum, 137, c .
laciO, 150.
laedo, ere, laesi, laesum, 147, 2.
lambs, ere, I, 160, 2.
langueo, ere, I, to be languid.
largior, iri, itus sum, 166.
lateS, ere, ui, to lie hid.
lavo, are (ere), lavi, lautum, 10-
tum, lavatum, 158.
lego, ere, legi, lectum, 160, i.
libet, libere, libuit (libitum est), it
pleases.
liceor, 5ri, itus sum, 164.
licet, licere, licuit (licitum est), ii
is permitted.
lingo, ere, linxi, linctum, 149, b.
lino, ere, lev! (llvi), litum, 139.
linquo, ere, HquI, 160, 2.
liqueo, 5re, licui, to be clear.
liveo, ere, to be livid.
loquor, I, locutus sum, 128, 2; 165.
luceo, ere, luxi, 147, i.
ludo, ere, lusi, lusum, 147, 2.
lugeo, ere, luxi, 147, i.
i Iutum, to wash,
luo.ere, lui, -< luitum, to atone for,
( 162.
Maereo, ere, to grieve.
malo, mSlle, malui, 142, 3; 174.
mando, ere, mandl, mansum,
160, 2.
maneo, ere, mans!, mansum, 147, i.
inansuBsco, -ere, -Bvi, -etum, 140,
INDEX OF VERBS.
499
raedeor, Sri, to heal.
meminl, 175, 5, b.
mentior, irl, Itus, 128, 2; 1G6.
mereor, 5ri, meritus sum, 164.
mergo, ere, mersi, raersum, 147, 2.
metier, In, mensus sum, 166.
meto, ere, messui (rare), messuin,
142,3-
metuo, ere, ui, 162.
mico, are, ul, 142, 2.
mingo, ere, miiixi, mictiim, 149, a.
minuo, ere, minui, minutum, 162.
misceo, ere, ul, mixtum (mistum).
misereor, eri, miseritus (misertus)
sum, 164.
mitto, ere, misi, missum, 147, z.
molo, ere, molui, molitum, 142, 3.
moneo, 6re, ul, itum, 131.
mordeo, 6re, momordi, morsum,
152.
morior, morl, mortuus sum (mori-
turus), 165.
moveo, ere, movi, motum, 159.
mulceo, ere, mulsi, mulsum, 147,
I.
mulgeo, 5re, mulsi, mulsum
(ctum), 157, i.
mungo, ere, munxi, munctum,
160.
Nanclscor, I, nactus(nanctus),165.
nascor, i, natus sum (nasciturus),
165.
neco, are, avl, atum, 142, 2.
necto, ere, nexl (nexul), nexum,
148.
neg-lego, ere, -lexi, -lectum,147,2.
necopinatus, 167, N. 2.
neo, nere, nevi, netum, 137, b.
nequeo, ire, 170.
ningo, ere, ninxi, 149, b.
niteo, ere, ul, to shine.
mtor, I, mxus (nisus) sum, 165.
nOlo, nolle, nolul, 142, 3 ; 174.
noceo, ere, ul (nociturus), to be
hurtful.
nosco, ere, novi, notum, 140; 175,
S,d.
nOtesco, ere, notui, 145.
ntibo, ere, nupsi, nuptum, 147, 2.
Ob-do, ere, -didl, -ditum, 151, i.
ob-dormisco, ere, -dormivi, -dor-
mitum, 140.
obliviscor, I, oblitus sum, 165.
ob-sideo (SEDEO), 3re, -sedl, -ses-
sum, 159.
ob-sisto, ere, -stiti, -stitum, 154, i.
obs-olesco, ere, -olevl, -oletum,
140.
ob-sto, stare, stiti (obstaturus),
151, 2.
obtineo (TENEO), ere, -tinul, -ten-
turn, 135, i, a.
oc-cido (CADO), ere, -cidi, -casum,
153.
oc-cido (CAEDO), ere, -eidl, -clsum,
153.
oc-cino (CANO), ere, -cinul, 142, 3;
153.
oc-cipio (CAPIO), ere, -cepl, -ceptum,
160, 3.
occulo, ere, occului, oceultum,
142, 3.
5di, def., 175, 5, a.
of-fendo, ere,-fendi,-f 6nsum,160, 2.
of-fero, -ferre, obtuli, oblatum,
171.
oleo, ere, ul, to smell.
operio, ire, operui, opertum, 142, 4.
oplnatus, 167, N. 2.
opperior, in, oppertus (or Itus),
166.
Crdior, irl, orsus sum, 166.
orior, irl, ortus sum (oriturus), 166.
os-tendo, ere, -tendi, -tensum
(-tentus), 155.
Paciscor, I, pactus sum, 165, 167,
N. 2.
palleo, -ere, -ul, to be pale.
pando, ere, pandl, passum (pan-
sum), 160, 2.
Danj?o ere \ PeP^!' 155'
iango, ere -^ panxi> UQ^
parco, ere, peperci (parsi), par-
surus, 153.
pario, ere, peperl, partum (pari-
turus), 157.
partior, irl, itus, 166.
pasco, ere, pavi, pastum, 140.
pate-facio, ere, -fed, -factum, 173,
N. 2.
pateo, Ere, ul, to be open.
patior, I, passus sum, 165.
paveo, ere, pavi, 159.
pecto, ere, pexi, pexum, 148.
pel-licio, -licere, ,", . i -lectum,
150, i.
500
INDEX OF VERBS.
pello, ere, pepull, pulsura, 155.
pendeo, ere, pependi, 152.
pendd, ere, pependi, pensum, 155.
per-cello, ere, perculi, perculsum,
144.
percEnseo (CENSEO), 6re, -censul,
-censum, 135, i, a.
percitus (CIEO), 137.
per-do, ere, -didl, -ditum, 169, 2,
K. i; 151, i.
per-eo, Ire, peril, itum, 169, 2, R. i.
per-ficio, ere, -fEd, -fectum, 160, 3.
per-fringo, ere, -fregl, -fractum,
160, 2.
pergo (REGO), ere, perrBxI, perrec-
tum, 147, 2.
per-petior (PATIOR), I, perpessus
sum, 165.
per-spicio, ere, -spexl, -spectum,
150, i.
per-sto, -stare, -stiti, 151, 2.
per-tineo (TENEO), Ere, ul, 135, i, a.
pessum-do, -dare, -dedl, -datum,
151, i.
peto, ere, ivi (il), Itum, 137, c.
piget, pigere, piguit, pigitum est,
it irks.
pingo, ere, pinxi, pictum, 149, a.
plnso, ere, ul (I), plnsitum (pistum,
pinsum), 142, 3.
plango, ere, planxl, planctum,
149, b.
plaudo.ere, plausi, plausum,147, 2.
plecto, ere, (plexl), plexum, 148.
plector, I, to be punished.
-pleo, 137, b.
plico, are, ul (avi), itum (atum),
142, 2.
polleo, ere, to be. potent.
polliceor. erl, itus sum, 164.
pono, ere, posui, positum, 139.
posco, ere, poposcl, 156.
pos-sideo (SEDEO), ere, -sedl, -ses-
sum, 159.
pos-sum, posse, potui, 119.
potior, Iri, Itus sum, 166.
poto, fire, avi, poturn, potatum,
136, 4, c.
potus, 167, N. 1.
prae-cello, ere, -cellul, 144.
p'rae-cino. ere, -cinul, 142, 3.
prae-curro, ere, -cucurri, -cursurn,
155.
prae-sideo (SEDEO). ere, -s5di, 159
prae-sum, -esse, -ful, 117.
prae-sto, -stare, -stiti (-staturus),
151, 2.
prandeo, Ere, prandl, pr5nsum,
159.
prehendo, ere, prehendi, prehen-
sum, 160, 2.
premo, ere, pressi, pressum, 147, 2.
prod-igo (AGO), ere, -egl, 160, i.
pro-do, ere, -didl, -ditum, 151, i.
pro-flclscor, I, profeetus sum, 165.
pro-fiteor (FATEOR), erl, -fessus
sum, 164.
promo (EMO), ere, prompsi, promp-
tum, 147, 2.
pro-sum, prodesse, profui, 118.
pro-tendo (TENDO), ere, -tend!,
-tentum, tensum, 155.
psallo, ere, I, 160, 2.
pudet, Ere, puduit, puditum est,
it shames.
puerasco, ere, to become a boy.
pungo, ere, pupugi, punctum, 155.
punior, In, Itus sum, 166.
Quaero, ere, quaesivl, quaesltum,
137, c.
quaeso, 175, 6.
quatio, ere, (quassi), quassum,
147, 2.
queo, quire, 170.
queror, querl, questus sum, 167.
quiesco, ere, quievl, quietum, 140.
Rado, ere, rasl, rasum, 147, 2.
rapio, ere, rapui, raptum, 146.
raucio, Ire, rausl, rausum, 150, 2.
re-cEuse5 (CEXSEO), Ere, -censul,
-censum (recensltum), 135, i, a.
re-cido, ere, reccidi, recasura, 153.
recrudesco, ere, -crudui, to get
raw again.
re-cumbo, ere, -cubui, 144.
red-arguo, ere, -argul, 162.
red-do, ere, -didl, -ditum, 151, i.
red-igo (AGO), ere, -Egl, -actum,
160, i.
red-imo, -Ere, 160, i.
re-fello (FALLO), ere, refelll, 155.
re-fero, -ferre, -tull, -latum, 171.
rego, ere, rexl, rectum, 147, 2.
re-linquo, ere, -HquI, -lictum,
160, 2.
reminlscor, I, to recollect.
INDEX OF VEKBS.
501
renideo, 5re, to glitter.
reor, rerl, ratus sum, 164.
re-pells, ere, reppull, pulsum, 155.
re- peris, ire, repperl, repertum,
157, 161.
repo, ere, r5psl, reptum, 147, 2.
re-siplsco, ere, -siplvi (sipui), 140.
re-sistS, ere, -stiti, -stitum, 154, i.
re-spondeS, ere, -spondi, -sponsum,
152.
re-sto, stare, -stiti, 151, 2.
re-stinguo, ere, -stinxl, -stinctum,
149, b.
re-tineS (TENEO), ere, ul, -tentum,
135, i, a.
re-vertor, I, reverti, reversum,
160, i ; 167.
re-vivIscS, ere, vixi, victum, to
revive.
rldeo, ere, risi, risum, 147, i.
rigeo, ere, ul, to be stiff.
rodo, ere, rSsI, rosum, 147, 2.
rubeS, 6re, ui, to be red.
rudo, ere, rudlvi, I turn, 137, c.
rumpo, ere, rupl, ruptum, 160, 2.
ruo, ere, rui, rutum (ruiturus), 162.
SaepiS, Ire, saepsi, saeptum, 150, 2.
salis, Ite/|J^ saltum, 142, 4.
sallo, ere, (salli), salsum, 160, 2.
salve, def., 175, 4.
sapio, ere (saplvi), sapui, 141.
sarcio, ire, sarsi, sartum, 150, 2.
satis-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum , 151 , i .
scabo, ere, scabi, to scratch, 160, i.
scalpo, ere, scalpsl, scalptum,
147, 2.
scando, ere, scandi, scSnsum,
160, 2.
scateo, ere, to gush forth.
scindo, ere, scidi, scissum, 160, 3.
sclsco, ere, scivi, scitum, 140.
scrlbo, ere, scrips!, scrlptum, 147,
2.
sculpo, ere, sculpsl, sculptum,
147, 2.
sepelio, Ire, Ivi, sepultum, 137, a.
sequor, I, secutus sum, 165.
sero, ere, 142, 3.
sero, ere, sevi, satum, 138.
serpo, ere, serpsi, serptum, 147, 2.
sido, ere, sidi, 160, i.
sileo. ere, ul, to be silent.
sine, ere, sivi, situm, 139.
sisto, ere, (stiti), statum, 154, i.
sitio, ire, ivi, to thirst.
soleo, ere, solitus sum, 167.
solve, ere, solvl, solutum, 160, i.
seco, are, secul, ni, U2> 2'
sedeo, 5re, s5dl, sessum, 159.
s5ligo (LEGO), ere, -l6gi, -l5ctum.
160, 1.
sentio, ire, sensi, sensum, 150, 2.
sorbeo, ere (sorp-sl), sorbui, 142, i.
sordeo, ere, ul, to be dirty.
sortior, m, sortltus sum, 166.
spargo, ere, sparsi, sparsum, 147,
2.
sperno, ere, sprevl, spretum, 139.
-spicio, 150, i.
splendeo, 5re, ul, to shine.
spondeo, ere, spopondl, sponsum,
152.
spuo, ere, spui, sputum, 162.
squaleo, ere, to be rough, foul.
statuo, ere, statul, statutum, 162.
sterno, ere, stravl, stratum, 139.
sternuo, ere, sternul, 162.
sterto, ere, stertui, 142, 3.
-stinguo, ere, 149, b.
sto, stare, stetl, statum, 151, 2.
strepo, ere, strepul, strepitum,
142, 3-
strldeo, Ere (ere), strkll, 159.
stringo, ere, strinxl, strictum,
149, a.
struS, ere, struxl, structum, 147, 2.
studeS, ere, ul, to be zealous.
stupeS, ere, ul, to be astounded.
suadeS, ere, su3sl, suasum, 147, i.
sub-dS, ere, -didl, -ditum, 151, i.
sub-igS (AGO), ere, -egl, -actum,
160, i.
suc-cedS (CEDO), ere, -cessl, -ces-
sum, 147.
suc-cendo, ere, -cendi, -censum,
160, 2.
suc-censeo, ere, ul, -censum, 135,
i, a.
suc-currS, ere, -currl,-cursum,155.
suesco, ere, suevl, suetum, 140.
suf-ferS, -ferre, sus-tinul, 171, N. 2.
suf-ficis (FACIO), ere, -feel, -fectum,
160, 3.
5O2
INDEX OF VERBS.
suf-fodio, ere, -fodi, -fossum,
160, 3.
sug-gero, ere, -gessi, -gestum, 147,
2.
sugo, ere, suxi, suctum, 147, 2.
sum, esse, ful, 116.
sumo (EMO), ere, sumpsl, sump-
turn, 147, 2.
suo, ere, sui, sutum, 162.
superbio, ire, to be haughty.
super-sto, -stare, -steti, 151, 2.
super-sum, -esse, -fui, 117.
sup-pono, ere, -posul, -positum,
139, A.
surgo (REGO), ere, surrexi, surrEc-
tum, 147, 2.
surripio, ere, ui (surpui), -reptum,
146.
Taedet, pertaesum est, it tires.
tango, ere, tetigl, tactum, 155.
tego, ere, t5xl, t5ctum, 147, 2.
temno, ere, 149, c.
tendo, ere, tetendi, tensum (-turn),
155.
teneo, ere, tenui, (tentum),135, i, a.
tergeo, ere, tersl, tersum, 147, i.
tero, ere, trivi, tritum, 137, c.
texo, ere, texul, textum, 143, 3.
timeo, ere, ui, to fear.
ting(u)o, ere, tinxl, tinctum,149,Z».
tollo, ere (sustuli, sublatum), 155.
tondeo, ere, totondl, tonsum, 152.
tono, are, ui, 142, 2.
torpeo, ere, ui, to be torpid.
torqueo, ere, torsi, tortum, 147, i.
torreo, ere, torrui, tostum, 135,i,a.
tra-do, ere, -didi, -ditum, 151, i.
traho, ere, traxi, tractum, 147, 2.
tremo, ere, ui, to tremble.
tribuo, ere, ui, tributum, 162.
triido, ere, trusi, trusum, 147, 2.
tueor, eri ^JJ^s)tutatussum, 164.
tumeo, 6re, ui, to swell.
tundo, ere, tutudi, tunsum, tu-
sum, 155.
turgeo, ere, tursl, 147, i.
Ulclscor, I, ultus sum, 165.
ungo, ere, unxl, unctum 149, b.
urgeo, ere, ursi, 147, i.
tiro, ere, tissi, tistum, 147, 2.
utor, i, tisus sum, 165.
Vado, ere, 147, 2.
vale, 175, 4.
veho, ere, vexi, vectum, 147,2 ; 165.
vello, ere, veil! (vulsi), vulsum,
160, 2.
ven-do, ere, -didi, -ditum, 151, i ;
169, 2, R. i.
ven-eo, ire, ivi (ii), 169, 2,. E. i?.
venio, ire, veni, ventum, 161.
v5num-do, -dare, -dedl, -datum,
151, i.
vereor, eri, veritus sum, 164.
verro, ere, verri, versum, 160, i.
verto, ere, verti, versum, 160, i.
vescor, I, 165.
vesperasco, ere, avi, 140.
veto, are, vetui, vetitum, 142, 2.
video, ere, vldi, visum, 159.
vieo, ere, etum, to plait. See
137, b.
vigeo, ere, ui, to flourish.
vincio, ire, vinxi, vinctum, 150, 2.
vinco, ere, vicl, victum, 160, 2.
viso, ere, visi, 160, i.
vivo, ere, vixi, victum, 147, 2.
volo, velle, volui, 142, 3; 174.
volvo, ere, volvi, volutum, 160, i.
vomo, ere, vomul, vomitum, 142, 3.
voveo, ere, vovi, votum, 159.
GENERAL INDEX.
ABBREVIATIONS. — Abl., ablative; Abs., absolute; Ace., accusative: act., active; adj.,
adjective; adv., adverb; attrib., attributive, attribution ; app.,appositive, apposition;
Comp., comparison, comparative; coustr., construction; cop., copula, copulative;
cpd., compound, compounded; Dat., dative; decl., declension; def., definite; dem.,
demonstrative; fern., feminine; Fut., future; Fut. Pf., future perfect; Gen., geni-
tive; Ger., gerund, gerundive; Impf., imperfect; Imp v., imperative; indef., indefi-
nite; Indie., indicative; Inf., infinitive; interrog., interrogative; Loc., locative;
masc., masculine; neg., negative; neut., neuter; Nona., nominative; obj., object;
Part., partitive; part., participle; pass., passive; PL, plural; poss., possessive, pos-
session; pred., predicate; prep., preposition; pron., pronoun ; rel., relative; Sg.,
singular; subj,, subject ; Subjv., subjunctive ; subst., substantive ; Sup., supine ; vb.,
verb ; Voc., vocative.
A — Sound of, 3; weakening of, 8,1; length
of final, 707,1. See ab.
ab (a)— In composition, 9,4; varies witb a
as prep., 9,4; syntax of as prep., 417,1;
position of, 413,u.l : Dat. after vbs. cpd.
with, 347.R.5; gives Point of Reference,
335,N. ; with Abl. takes place of second
Ace., 339.N.2: with Abl. of Separation,
390: with Abl. of Point of View, i6.2,N.6;
with Towns, 391.B.1; with Abl. of Origin,
395; with Abl. of Respect, 397, N.I; with
Abl. of Agent, 401; to express Cause,
408.N.3; with Abl. Ger., 433.
abdicate— with se and Abl., 390,N.3.
abesse — with Ace. of Extent, or a and
Abl., 335,11.2: with Dat., 349.R.4; with
Abl. of Measure, 403.N.1; of Place, 390,
N.3; tantum abest ut,— nt, 552.B.1.
abbinc — with Ace., 336.B.3.
abb.orr.5re— with Abl. of Place, 390, N.3.
ability— adjs. of, with Inf., 423,N.l,c.
ablre— with Abl. of Place, 390.N.3.
ABLATIVE — defined, 23,6; 1st decl. Sg. in
5d.Pl. ineis,29,N.4; PI. in abus,29,R.4;
2d decl. Sg. in 5d, 33.N.3; PI. in gis, 33,
N.5; 3d decl. Sg. in ei( J( e, 37,4; mute
stems with 1, 64; sporadic cases in I( 54,
N.2 ; vowel stems in I, 57.R.2 ; adjs.
used as substs. in J, 57,R.2,n.; 4th
decl. in ubus, 61,R.l; adjs. in d, 75.N.3;
PI. in Is (for Us) and abus, 75.N.6; adjs.
of three endings in e, 79.R.1: adjs. and
parts, in I and e, 82; adjs. iu e and f,
83; Comp. of part., 89,is.l; forms advs.,
91,2.
With act. vb. cannot be subj. of pass.,
217, R.I; with vbs. involving comparison,
296,N.l; prepositional uses instead, ib.
N.3; with pro of Disproportion, 298; for
inner obj., 333,2, N. 4; with abesse and
distare, 335.K.2; of Point of Reference,
ib- N. ; with Ace. after vbs. of Giving and
Putting, 348; with preps, instead of
Part. Gen., 372.R.2. Scheme of Syntax,
384; of Place where, 385: of Towns, 386;
of Place whence, 390; with vbs. of Ab-
staining, 390,2; with Adjs., 390,3; of
Towns, 391; preps, with Towns, ib. B.I;
of Attendance, 392; of Time, 393; preps.,
394; of Origin, 395; preps., ib. N.2; of
Material, 396; of Respect, 397; with
words of Eminence, ib. N.2; with Comp.,
398, 296, and RR.1,2; of Manner, 399;
of Quality, 400, and R.I; with cum of
unnatural productions, ib. N.2 ; of In-
strument, 401; of Agent, 314, and B.2,
401 and RR.1,2; with special vbs., 401,
NN.1-7; of Standard, 402; of Difference,
403; of Price, 404; with vbs. of Plenty
and Want, 405; with opus and usus,
406; with utor, fruor, etc., 407; of Cause,
408 and NN.2-6; of Ger., 431; of Ger.
with preps., 433; of Sup., 436-
ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE — concord with two
subjs., 285, N.3; syntax of, 409,10; with
Interrog., 469.N.; of part., 665.N.2.
504
GENEKAL INDEX
abrumpere — with Abl. of Place, 390, N. 3.
absiste— with Iiif. for Impv., 271,2,N.2.
absolvere — with Abl. of Place, 390.N.3.
absonus— with Abl., 359, N. 2.
Absorption of Correlative — 619.
absque — 417,2; withSubjv., 597, N.
abstaining— vbs. of, with Abl., 390,2.
abstingre— with Abl. of Place, 390.N.3.
abstract— relations expressed by Indie.,
254,R.l: substs. become concrete in PI.,
204.N.5; formation of, 181,2,6.
abundantia — 84.
abundare— with Gen., 383.1.N.2.
abun.de— ''fry, 439.N.3.
abutl— with Abl., 407 and N.2,a.
gC— see atque ; ac Si with Subjv. of
Comparison, 608; SCS1= quasi, 16. N.5.
accedere — with Dat., etc., 347, K. 2; with
quod, 625; with ut, 553,4.
accent— in early Latin, 701, R.2 ; in mu-
sic, 729; conflict with Ictus, 749.
accentuation— 15; effect of enclitics, t6.
B.I; in cpds., ib.-R.Z; in Voc., ib. B.3;
early, t&.N.
accidit— with Dat., 346.B.2 ; sequence
after, 513, B. 2; with ut, 553,3.
accipere— with Inf., 627,B.l.
accommodatus — with Dat. Ger.,429,x.l.
accumbere— with Dat., etc., 347,B.2.
ACCUSATIVE — definition, 23,4. 3d decl. 36;
in im, 37,3; 54,N.l; in eiS, 38,3; of vowel
stems, 57.B.1 and 5; PI. in Is and 6s( 57,
B.5; in Greek substs., 66, NN. 3 and 4; of
adjs. of three endings in Ig( eis, 79.N.2;
iul3,83,N.l; of Comp. inls, els, 89, E. 2;
forms advs., 91,1.
Becomes subj . of pass. , 216 ; syntax of,
328-343: general view, 328,329; direct
obj., 330; with vbs. of Emotion, i&.n. and
K.2; 333,l,N.l; with verbal substs., 330,
N.3; with adjs. in undus, i&.N.4 ; with
cpd. vbs., 331. Inner obj., 332, 333; neut.
pron and adj., 333,1; Cognate, t6.2; Abl. '
instead, t6.2,N.4; with vbs. of Taste and
Smell, i&.2,N.5; extension of Cognate
idea, t6.2,NN.2 and 6.. Double Ace., 333,
1; of Extent, 334-336; in Degree, 334, in
Space, 335, in Time. 336; with abesse
and dlstare, 335.R.2; with abhinc, 336,
B.3; with nStuS, t'6.B.4; with adjs., ib.
N.I; of Extent as subj. of pass., t6.N.3;
of Local Object, 337; prep, with Large
Towns, t'6. BB.l and 2; domum and in
domum, ib. B.3; force of ad, 16. B.4;
with usque, t'6.N.4; with verbal substs.,
ib. N.5; of Respect, 338: with vbs. of
Clothing, etc., and passives, ib. N.2;
Greek Ace. or Abl. instead, ib. N.I.
Double Ace., 339-342: with vbs. of In-
quiring, etc., 339; special vbs., ib. BB.,
xx.; pass, form, ib. N.4; with vbs. of
Naming, Making, etc., 340: pass, form,
t'6. B.I; End by ad or Dat., ib. B.2; one
Ace. is cognate, 341 and N.2; one Ace.
forms a phrase, 342; as a general objec-
tive case, 343; with Interjections, ib. 1;
Ace. and Inf., ib. 2; and Dat. with vbs.
of Giving and Putting, 348; with prepa.
for Part. Gen., 372, B. 2: for Abl. of
Standard, 403.N.2; subj. of Inf., 203.B.1;
420: after impersonal Ger., 427,N.2; of
Ger., 430; of Ger. with preps., 432; of
Sup., 435; with Inf. as object clause,
526-535; with Inf. as subj., 535; with
Inf. after vbs. of Emotion, 542, R. ; with
Inf. in rel. clause, 635; with Inf. in
dependent comparative clause, 641.
accusing -vbs. of, with Gen., 378; with
other constr., t'6. BB.2 and 5.
acqui8scere— with Abl., 401.N.6.
acquitting— vbs. of, with Gen., 378; with
other constr., t'6. BB.2 and 3.
action, activity — suffixes for, 181,2; 182,1.
active voice — 112,2 ; 213 ; Inf. as pass.,
532, x. 2; of something caused to be
done, 219; periphrastic, 247.
ad— in composition, 9,4; vbs. cpd. with,
take Ace., 331; with Towns and Coun-
tries, 337, BB.I and 4; with Ace. of End
after vbs. of Taking, etc., 340, B.2: with
Ace. for Dat., 345, R. 2; vbs. cpd. with,
take Dat. ,347; in the neighbourhood of, 386,
B.2; ftence,403,N.4,e; position of, 413, B.I;
as adv., 415; as prep., 416,1; with Ace.
Ger., 429,2; 428, B.2; 432 and B. ; after
vbs. of Hindering, 432,R. ; with Ger. for
Abl. Sup., 436.N.3: ad id quod, 525,2,
N.2.
adaequS— with Abl., 296.N.1; 398.N.2.
adaptation— words of, with Dat. Ger.,
429,2.
addere — with operam and Dat. Ger., 429,
1; with quod, 625,1, N.I; with ut,653,4.
adding— vbs. of, with quod, 526,1 ; list
of, ib. N.I: with ut, #• N.5; 663,4.
adductUS— with Abl. of Cause, 408.N.2.
ade5— with ut, 562.
adesse— with Dat., etc., 347.R.2.
GENERAL INDEX.
505
adfatim— very, 439, N. 3.
adferre— with ut, 553,1.
adhaere"scere— with Dat., etc., 347.B.2.
adhortari— with ut, 546.N.1.
adh.UC— strengthens Comp., 301; as yet,
still, 478,N.l.
adicere— with quod, 525,i,n.l.
adigere— with ut, 553,1.
adipisci— with ut, 553,1.
adlre— with Ace. or ad, 331.B.3.
adiuvare— with ut, 553,1.
ADJECTIVE — 16,2; and subst., ib. B.I, N.I;
decl. of, 17; defined, 72; 1st and 2d decl.,
73; Gen. and Voc., 73; stems in ro, 74;
with Norn, wanting, 74.B.2; Pronominal,
76; 3d decl., 77; two endings, 78; stems
in ri, 78,2; in gli and gri, 78,B.; one
ending, 80: case peculiarities, 83; abun-
dautia, 84; varying decl. , 84,2; defective
and indeclinable, 85; comparison of, 86;
correlative, 109: formation of, 182.
As subst., 204.NN.1-4 ; agreement of
pred., 211; exceptions, ib. KB.; attrib.
agrees in Gender, 286; neut. with fern.,
i&. 3; concord of, 289; with two subjs.,
290; position, 290.N.2, 291; meaning
varies with position, ib. B.I ; 676 ;
superlatives of Order and Sequence,
291,1,K.2; numerals, 292-295: compara-
tives, 296-301; superlatives, 302, 303; of
Inclination, Knowledge, etc., in pred.,
325.B.6; verbal with Ace., 330,N.3; neut.
in Cognate Ace., 333,1 ; of Extent in
Degree, 334 and B.I; or Time, 336.N.1;
•with Gen. of Quality, 365.B.2; of 3d
decl. as pred., 366,B.2 ; with Abl. of
Separation, 390,3; with Abl. of Atten-
•dance, 392.B.1; with Abl. of Quality, 400;
in Abl. Abs., 410.NN.4.5; with Inf., 421,
N.l.c; with Inf. for Gen. of Ger., 428,N.3;
with Abl. Ger., 431, N.I; with Abl. Sup.,
436.N.2; neut. with ut, 553,4, and B.2.
adligare— with s5 and Gen., 378,B.l.
admirarl— with Inf., 533.B.1.
admodum — very, 439.N.3-, with quam
and Indie., 467,N.; yef, 471,1.
admon8re— with two Aces., 341.N.2 ; with
ut, 546,N.l.
Adonic— measure, 789, 792.
adorlrl— with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
adorning — vbs. of, with Abl., 401,N.l.
adstringere— with se" and Gen., 378.B.1.
adul6sc6ns— 437, N.I.
advantage— \\>a. of, with Dat., 346.
ADVEBB— defined, 16,5, and n.3; discussion
of, 91, 92: from Ace., 91,1; from Abl., ib.
2; from Loc., ib. 3; uncertain, ib. 4; by
terminations, 92,1-5; syntactical and
miscellaneous, 92,6 ; comparison of, 93;
numeral, 98; pron., 110; with Dat., 359,
N.7; with Part. Gen., 372.N.3 ; genera]
use of, 439; position of, 440; for rel.
with prep., 611,B.l: position of, 677.
adversarl— with Dat., 346.B.2.
adversative — sentences, 483-491 ; parti-
cles, 483 ; cum, 580.NN.1 and 2, 587;
qul, 634.
ad versus— gives obj. toward which, 359,
B.2; as adv., 415; as prep., 416,2.
advertere— animum, with Ace., 342.
ae— pronunciation of, 1 and N. ; weaken-
ing of, 8,1.
aedes — omitted, with Gen., 362.R.3.
aequalis — with Gen. or Dat., 359, B.I.
aequare — with Dat., 346, N. 3.
aequum— with est instead of sit, 254.B.1;
aeque with Abl., 296, N.I; aequo after
Coinp., 398.N.1; with atque, 643.N.3;
aequS— aequS, 482,3.
aes— decl. of, 47,6.
aestimare— with Gen., 379; with Abl.,
380.N.1; with Abl. and ex, 402.B.2.
aetas— in Abl. of Time, 393, K. 5 ; idaeta-
tis, 336.N.2.
aeternum— as adv., 336.N.1.
afficere— with Abl. of Means, 401.N.3.
affinis — with Dat. or Ace., 359.R.1; with
Gen., 374.N.2.
affitrmare— with inf., 527,8.2.
age— with PL, 211.N.2; with Impv., 269;
age ve"r5, 487.N.3 ; id ago, with ut,
546.N.1.
agency— suffixes for, 181,1.
agent— in Abl. with ab,214, 401; in Abl.,
214, B.2; in Dat., 215, 354, 355; and In-
strument, 401, B.I.
aggredl— with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
aiS— 175,1; supplied from neg5, 447, B. ;
introduces O.R., 648.B.2 ; with Inf., 527,
B.2.
alaris— and alarms, 84,2.
Alcaic— measure, 791, 799.
Alcmanian— measure, 786.
all — forms indef. prons., 111,1.
aliSnus— poss. of alius, 108; with Gen.
or Dat., 359, it. 1 and N.2.
aliquando— aliquando, 482.N.1.
aliquantum— with ante, 403.N.4.
506
GENERAL INDEX.
aliquis and aliqul— 107; with PI. vrb.,
211.N.2; syntax of, 314; with numerals,
314,R.2,i; for quis and qul, 107.N.1, and
315, N. 1 ; with two negs., 315.N.1 ; per
aliquem stare, with n6, quominus,
648,N.l.
alius— decl. of, 76, 108; reciprocal alius
alium, 221.B.1; with Abl., 319; for
alter, CSterl, ib. N.I ; besides, ib. N.2;
alia as Ace. of Respect, 338,2; aliter
with Abl. of Measure, 403.N.3; alius
atque alius, 477, N.O; alias— alias, 482,
l ; turn— alias, alias— plSrumque,
interdum— alias, ib. N.2 ; ali5— alio,
alibi— alibi, ib. 2 ; aliter— aliter, n>.
3; aliter strengthens sin, 592; followed
by quam, nisi, praetor, 643.N.4 ; with
atque, 643.N.3.
allSc— decl. of, 68,12.
alphabet— 1. Sounds of letters, ib. BB.
1-3; names of letters, ib. N.
alter— decl. of, 76, 108; for secundus,
96,5 ; alter alterum, reciprocal, 221, B.
1; and alius, 319.
alteruter— decl. of, 76, 108.
altitude— with Ace. of Extent, 335, R.I.
altUS— with Ace. of Extent, 335. B.I.
amare— 122 ; amabO, with Impv., 269 ;
amans, 437.N.1 ; with Gen., 375, N.2.
amb — in composition, 9,4.
amblre— conj. of, 169.2.B.1.
amb5— decl. of., 73,B.,95,108; and uter-
que, 292.
amiCUS— with Gen. or Dat., 359, E.I.
amplius— with quam omitted, 296, R.I.
an — in disjunctive questions, 457,1 ; in
phrases, ib. 2 ; strengthened by ne, ib.
1,N.2; as a simple interrog. particle, ib.
1,N.3; in second part of a disjunctive
question, 458 ; anne, ib.: and aut, ib.
s.4; annSn and necne, 459; fornum
or ne in indirect question, 460.1.N.1 ;
or 497.
anacoluthon — 697.
Anacreontic — measure, 819-'
anacrusis— and anacrustic scheme, 739
anapaestic— foot, 734; rhythm, 736; va-
rieties of, 777-782; substitutes for, 777.
anaphora — 485, N.2; 636, N. 4: 682.
angl— with Ace. and Inf., 533, B.I.
angiportus— decl. of, 68,5.
animadvertere— with inf., 527.B.1.
animals— as instruments or agents, 214,
B.2.
animus— with nt, 646.N.2 ; animum ad-
vertere, with ACC.. 342: animi as Loc.,
374, N. 7; in animo esse, with inf., 422,
N.5.
Anio— decl. of, 41,4.
annuere— with Dat., etc., 347.B.2.
ante — in composition, 9,4 ; vba. cpd. will
take Ace. or Dat., 331, 347; with Abl. of
Standard or Ace. of Extent, 403.N.4 ;
position of, 413, B.I and N.3; as adv.,
415 ; as prep., 416,3 ; with Ace. Ger.,
432 and N.I; with part., 437.N.2.
anteSquam— see antequam.
antecedent — action, 561-567 ; definite,
613 ; repetition of, 615 ; incorporation
of, 616 ; indefinite, 621 ; def. or indef.
with Indie, or Subjv., 631,1, and 2.
antecSdere— with Dat., etc., 347,B.2.
antecellere— with Dat., etc., 347.B.2; with
Abl. of Respect, 397.N.2.
anteire— with Dat., etc., 347.B.2.
antepenult — U.
antequam— with Indie., 574-576 ; with
Pr., 575 ; with Pf. and Fut. Pf., 676 ;
with Subjv., 577.
anterior— 87,8.
aorist— forms on s5, sim, 131,4,6.; defi-
nition, 224 ; Pure Pf. as Aor., 236, N. ;
Hist. Pf., 239 ; Plupf., 241.N.1 ; Pf. as
Potential of Past, 258.N.2.
apodosis — 589; omission of, 601; in com-
parative sentences, 602 ; in Indie, in
Unreal Conditions, 597, u. 3 ; after vrb.
requiring Subjv., ift.B.5.
aposiopesis— 691.
appare"re— as cop. vb., 206,N.l ; with
Norn, and Inf., 528.N.2 ; with ut, 653,4,
appellate — with two Aces., 340; with two
Noms., 206.
appointing — vbs. of, with Dat. of Ger.,
429,2.
apposition — 320; concord in, 321; excep-
tions, ib. BB.,NN. ; Partitive, 322, 323 ;
Restrictive, 322 ; Distributive, 323 ;
whole and part, ib. N.2 ; to sentence,
324 ; predicate, 325 ; Gen. of, 361 ; to
names of Towns, 386.B.1 ; to Loc., 411,
B.3; pron. incorporated, 614, B.4; subst.
incorporated, 616,2.
appropinquare— with Dat., 346.R.2.
appurtenance — suffix of, 182,6.
aptus— constr., 552, B. 2 ; with qul and
Subjv., 631,1.
apud— 416,4.
GENERAL INDEX.
507
arbitrarl— with Inf., 527.R.2.
arbitratu— as Abl. of Cause, 408.N.1.
arbor - decl. of, 45,N.
arc6re— with Abl. of Separation, 390,2,u.2.
Archilochian— measure, 788, 800.
arcus — decl. of, 68,5.
ard6re— with inf., 423.2.N.2 ; ardens, to
express cause, 408.N.2.
ardor— with ut, 646.N.2.
arguere— with Gen., 378.B.1; with Inf.,
528.N.1.
Aristophanic— measure, 793.
arrangement— of words, 671-683 ; of
clauses, 684-687 ; grammatical or rhe-
torical, 672 ; ascending and descending,
673 ; of simple sentences, 674 ; of inter-
rog. sentences, 675 ; of adj. and Gen.,
676; of ad vs., 677; of preps., 678; of par-
ticles, 679 ; of attributes, 680 ; of oppo-
sites, 681; of pairs, 682 ; anaphoric and
chiastic, 682 ; poetical, 683 ; periods,
685; historical and oratorical, 687.
arrldere— with Cat., etc., 347.R.2.
artisan— suffixes for, 181,3.
as— decl. of,48,K.
Asclepiadean — measure, 802, 803.
asking— vbs. of, with two Aces., 339 and
B. I.N.I; with Inf. or ut, 546 and B.3.
aspergere — with Dat. and Ace., or Ace.
and Abl., 348,B.l.
aspicere— with inf., 527.R.1; aspectu,
436.N.1.
aspirates — 6, 2, B.
assentiri-with Dat., 346.R.2; 347.E.2.
assequl— with ut, 653,1.
-assere— as Inf. ending, 131,4,6.4.
asseverations— in Subjv., 262; in Fut.
Indie., ib. N.; with nisi, 591,6,2.
assidgre— with Dat., etc., 347.R.2.
assimilations — of vowels, 8,4 ; of conso-
nants, 9,1,2,3 ; of preps., 9,4 ; of Voc.,
211.B.3.
assugfacere— with Abl. or Dat., 401.N.2 ;
with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
assuescere — with Abl. or Dat., 401.N.2;
with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
astu— in Abl. of Manner, 399.N.1.
asyndeton — after demonstrative, 307,
B.4; in coordination, 473, N., 474, N., 483,
N., 492.N.
at— use of, 488 and UN. : ast, 488.N.1.
atque— for quam, 296.N.4 ; syntax of,
477 and notes : adds a third member,
481,N.: with adjs. of Likeness, etc., 643;
for quam after neg. Comp., 644,N.
2.
atqul— 489; atquln, ib. N.I.
attendance— Abl. of, 392 ; with cum, ib.
B.I; instrumental, ib. B.2.
attinet— with Inf., 422.N.4; restrictions
with, 627.B.2.
attraction— in Gender, 211.B.5 ; in mood,
508,4, 629; of vb. of Saying into Subjv.,
541.N.3, 585.N.3, 630.N.3 ; of Eel., 617 ;
inverse, 617.N.2 ; of mood in general,
662, 663.
attributive— 288 ; concord of adj., 289 ;
with two or more substs., 290; position
of, 291 ; superlatives of Order and Se-
quence, 291,1,8.2 ; pred., 325 ; various
peculiarities of, ib. BE. ; omitted with
cognate Ace., 333,2, N.I ; with Abl. of
Time, 393, B. 5 ; omitted with Abl. of
Manner, 399.N.1; with Inf., 421.N.2; with
part., 437.B.
ail— pronunciation of, 4 ; weakening of,
8,1.
auctorem— esse, with Dat., 346.N.5 ; with
Inf., 527.B.2 ; with ut, 546.N.1.
auctSritas— with ut, 546.N.1 ; auctSri-
tate as Abl. of Cause, 408.N.1.
audgre— with Inf., 423,2,N.2.
audlre— like Gr. <ucouW, 206.N.2; audl-
6ns, with Dat., 346,N.5 ; with cum and
Subjv., 580.B.2; with Inf. and part.,
527.B.1, and N.I ; with rel. and Indie.,
467,N.; audits, 436.N.1.
auscultare— with Dat., 346.B.2.
aut— distinguished from an, 438.N.4; use
of, 493 and notes; aut— aut with PL,
285.N.1: subdivides a ueg., 445.
autem— position of, 413.N.3, 484.B.; syn-
tax of, 484; in lively questions, ib. N.I ;
strengthens sed, 485.N.3, 592.
auxiliarl— with Dat., 346.R.2.
auxiliaris— and auxiliarius, 84,2.
auxiliary — vbs. with Inf., 280,1,6.
av6re— with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
Sversus— with Dat., 359.B.5.
Baccar— 68,12.
Bacchic — loot, 734; measures, 811-814.
balneum— 68,3.
becoming— vbs. of, with two Noms., 206.
beginning— vbs. of, with Inf., 423, and N.2.
believing— vbs. of, with Ace. and Inf., 526
and 527; with Norn., 528.
bellare— with Dat., 346.N.6.
GENERAL INDEX.
bellum— in Abl. of Time, 394.B ; belli
as Loc., 4U,B.2.
belonging— suffixes for, 182,5.
benevolus — compared, 87,4.
beseeching— vba. of, with ut, 546.
bewaring — vbs. of, with ng, 648.
bibere— with dare, 421.N.1.6.
bidding— vbs. of, with Cat., 346.
biiugus— and biiugis, 844-
bimatris— 85,1-
binl— for duo, 346.B.2.
blandirl— with Dat., 346.B.2.
boards— with Dat. Ger.. 429,1.
bonus— comparison, 90 ; cul bond, 356,
E.I ; bene, as adv. of Degree, 439,N.2,
• and 3.
books— omit in with Abl., 387.
b6s-decl. of, 62,7.
brachylogy— 689.
breathings — 6, 2, A .
buying— .vbs. of, with Gen. or Abl., 379,
C— sound of, L.B.1; name of, I,N.
cadere— with Abl. of Separation, 390,2,N.
2.
caesura— denned, 760 ; varieties, 751 ;
masc. and fern., 762 ; bucolic, 763, B. 2 ;
in Iamb. Sen., 759, N.2; in lam. Trim.
Cat., 761.N.; iu lam. Trim. Claud., 762,
N.4 ; in lam. Oct., 763.N.6. ; in lam.
Sept., 764.N.2 ; in Troch. Sept., 770,N.2:
in Dae. Hex., 784.N.2 : in alcaic, 791,
798, 799,N.l ; in Glyconic, 796; in Phalae-
cean, 796.N.3 ; in Sapphic, 797.N.2, 804 :
in Archilochian, 800,N. ; in Asclepia-
dean, 802.N.1.
calling— vbs. of, with two Aces., 340; with
two Noms., 206.
Calx— decl. of, 70.D.
campl— as Loc., 4U.B.2.
can tica— defined, 747; in early Latin,
824; in later Latin, 826.
capability— «djs. of, with Inf., 421.N.1.C.
capacity— adjs. of, with Dat. Ger., 429,2 ;
suffixes for, 182,2.
capl— with Gen. of Charge, 878.B.1.
capital— decl. of, 78, B.
caput— decl. of, 63,8; est with Inf., 422,
N.2.
cardinal numbers— 94 ; Gen. PI. of, 96,
B.2 ; collective Sg. of, 16. ; duo and
ambo, 292 : with singull, 296: for Dis-
tributive, 295.N.; poeition of, 676.B.2.
cargre— with Abl., 405; with Gen., 383,1,
N.2.
caro — decl. of, 41,4; gender of, 43,1.
Carthagini— as Loc., 4U.B.1.
earns— with Abl. of Price, 404,N.2.
cases— denned, 23 ; strong and weak,
rgctl and obllqul, 24 ; case-forms, 26 ;
endings, 26,2.
cassis— decl. of, 68,12.
casu-as Abl. of Mariner, 399,N.l.
catalexis —742.
causa— with Gen., 373; with poss. pron.,
ib. B.2; with Gen. Ger., 428.B.2; causa,
in phrases with ut, 646.N.2 ; causam
vincere, 333,2,8.
CAUSAL SENTENCES — coordinate, 498 ; par-
ticles, 498 ; syntax of subordinate, 538-
642 ; general division, 638, 539 ; with
quod, etc., and Indie., 640 ; with auod,
etc,, and Subjv., 841; with quia, ib.
N.I ; rejected reason, t'6. N.2 ; with
quanddque, ib. N.5 ; with vbs. of Emo-
tion, 642 ; si for quod, ib. N.I ; with
Cum, 680.BB.1 and 2, 686 ; with tam-
quam, etc., 641.N.4, 602, N.4 ; relative,
634 ; clauses in O.O., 665.
causation — vbs. of, with part., 637 ; with
ut, 553,1; pass, with ut, ib. 3.
causative verbs — formation of, 191,4.
cause— Abl. of, 408 ; various expressions
for, t'6. NN. ; preventing, t'6. N.4 ; exter-
nal, t6. N.6; represented by part., 666,
670,2.
cavBre— with Subjv. for Impv., 271,2;
with Dat., 346, N.2; constructions with,
548,NN. 1 and 3.
C6— appended to iste, 104.3.N.2 ; to ille,
t'6. N.3.
cSdere— with Dat., 346, K. 2 ; with Abl. of
Separation, 390, 2, N.2.
cedo— defective, 176,6.
celare — with two Aces., or d6, 339 and B.
1 and 3, N.I.
celer —comparison of, 87,1, and N.
cgnsere— with Inf., 627.B.2 ; with ut, 646,
N.I ; cSnseo, yes, 471,2.
centimanus— defective, 86,2.
cernere— with inf., 527,B.l.
certare— with Dat., 346.N.6; rem cer-
tare, 333, 2,s.
certus— strengthens qnldam, 313.B.3 ;
with Gen., 374.N.O ; cert6, certO, yet,
471,1; certS, strengthens at, 488.N.2-,
certius (quam), with inf., 422.N.3-,
GENERAL INDEX.
509
certum eat, with inf., 423.2.N.2; cer-
ti5rem facere, with inf., 527.R.2.
CCSSare— with Inf., 423,2,N.2.
(cSterus)— Nom. masc. wanting, 74,n.2,
86,1; use of ceterum, 491; cetera used
partitively, 291.R.2; alius instead, 319,
N.I: as Ace. ofBespect, 338,2.
charge— in Gen. with Judicial verbs,
378 ; with nomine, '&• »-2 ; in Abl., ib.
H.3.
chiasmus— 682 and B.
choosing— vbs. of, with two Noras., 206 ;
with two Aces., 340 ; End with Dat. or
ad, *6- R-2 ; vbs. of, with Final Dat.,
356.N.2.
choriambic— feet, 734 ; rhythms, 801.
cingl— with Ace., 338.N.2.
circa— position of, 413, B.I : as adv., 415 ;
as prep., 416,5 ; with Ace. Ger., 432 and
N.I.
circiter— as prep., 416,6.
circum— in composition, 9,4 ; vbs. cpd.
with, take Ace., 331; never repeated, ib.
B.2; as adv., 415: as prep., 416,5.
circtundare — with Dat. and Ace., or Ace.
and Abl., 348.B.1.
circumfundere— with Ace. and Dat., or
Ace. and Abl., 348, K.I.
— with direct question, 467,
circumstantial cum— 585-588.
cis— as prep., 416,7.
citerior— 87,2 and 7.
citius quam — constr. after, 644, n. 3.
citra— as adv., 415; as prep., 416,7.
Civitas — concord of, in pred., 211,B.6.
Clam— as adv., 415; as prep., 416,8.
clanculum — as prep., 416,8.
cllVUS— decl. of, 67,2.
clothing— vbs. of, with Ace. of Respect,
338.N.8; with Abl. of Means, 401.N.1.
cluSre— with Nom. and Inf., 528.N.1.
COepI— 175,5,a, and N. ; with Inf., 423,
N.3.
C6gere— with Inf., 423,2,N.2; with ut, 653,
2; conclude, with Inf., 546.R.1, 653,2,N.
cSgitare— with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
C0gitati5— in phrases with ut, 557.R.
Cognate Accusative — 333,2 ; similar
phrases, ib. B. ; with second Ace., 341 ;
with prohibSre, inhere, ib. N.2.
COgnatUS — with Gen. or Dat., 359, it. 1.
cSgnitiS— in phrases with ut, 557,K.
cognomen esse — with Dat.. 349.R.5.
cognoscere— with lnf.,527,B.l ; cSgnitu
as Sup., 436,N.l.
coincidence— constr. with, 513.N.3.
COlre— with Dat., 346.N.6.
COlligere— with Inf., 627.E.2.
collocare — with in and Abl., 385, u.l ;
with in and Ace., ib. N.2.
coins — decl. of, 61.N.5.
comitarl— with Dat., 346.N.2.
COmitilS— as Abl. of Time, 393.R.5.
commiserarl— with ACC., 377,^.2.
committere— with Ace. Ger., 430.N.1;
with ut, 548.N.1.
commovSre— with ut, 563,2; commotus,
to express cause, 408.N.2.
Commune— as subst., 211.B.4; in phrases
with ut, 557.B. ; communis, with Gen.
or Dat., 359. u.l.
comparative— in ior, 86; in entior, 87,4,5;
lacking, 87,9; with quam or Abl., 296
and BB. ; omission of quam, ib. B.4; age
with natus, ib. B.5; with opinione, ib.
B.6; of Disproportion, 298; omission of
Ut after quam, ib. B.2; restriction of,
300; strengthened, 301; doubled, ib.;
with Part. Gen., 372 and B.2; with Abl.
of Respect, 398 and B.; with Abl. of
Measure, 403.N.1; with Abl. Ger., 431.N.
2; with quam qul, 631,3.
COMPARATIVE SENTENCES — 638-644; divis-
ion of, 638: moods in, 639; vb. omitted
in, 640 ; in dependent clauses, 641; cor-
relatives in, 642; the more— the more, ib.
B.2; with atque, 643; with quam, 644.
comparison — of adjectives, 86 ; peculiar-
ities, 87; by magis and maximS, ib.6;
by plus and plurimum, *&• 6.N.2; de-
fective, 87,2,7,9; of participles, 88,89; of
advs., 93; irregular, 90; standard of,
omitted, 297; of qualities, 299; condi-
tional sentences of, 602.
compelling— vbs. of, with ut, 653,2.
compensatory lengthening — 9,6,a.
comperce— with Inf. for Impv.,271,2,N.2.
comperlre — with Gen., 378.R.1; with Inf.,
527.B.1.
C0mp6sce— with Inf. for Impv., 271,2,
N.2.
complere— with Gen., 383,1.
COmplexus— as a Present, 282,N.
compos— with Gen., 374,N.3.
composition — of words, 193-200 ; divis-
ions, 193; of substs., 194-198; of vbs.,
199, 200.
GENERAL INDEX.
compounds— attrib., 197,1 ; dependent,
ib. 2 ; poss., 198 ; quantity in, 716.
con— see cum.
conarl— with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
conatus— defective, 68,5.
concedere— used personally in pass., 217,
N.2; with Cat., 346,R.2; with Inf., 423,2,
N.2; 532.N.1; with Ace. Get., 430.N.1;
with lit, 548.N.1.
conceinng— vbs. of, with obj. clause, 523.
concessive— Subjv., 264 : com, 580.NN.1
and 2, 587; qul,634; part., 609,667,670,4.
CONCESSIVE SENTENCES— 603-609 ; with
etsi, etc., 604; with quamquam, 605;
with quamvis, etc., 606; with licet,
607; with ut, 608; representatives of.
609.
concludere— with inf., 527.B.2.
concord— 210; pred. with subj., 211; vio-
lations of, ib. BB.l-6,NN.l-3; of anbj.and
pred. multiplied, 285-287; of app., 321;
neut. for persons, 323, N. 3; of rel., 614.
C0ncupi6ns— with Gen., 375.N.2.
concurrere— with Dat., 346,N.6.
condecet— with Inf., 422.N.4.
condemning — vbs. of, with Gen., 378; with
other constrs., ib. B.2; with Abl., ib. B.
3; enforced destination, ib. B.4.
condicio — in phrases with ut, 546, N.2.
condition— suffixes for, 181,8; indicated
by a question, 453, M. 3; represented by
part., 667,670,4.
conditional cum— 683-
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES— 589-602 ; divis-
ion of, 589; sign, 590 ; negatives, 591:
two excluding, 592: equivalents of Pro-
tasis, 593: classification of, 594. LOGICAL,
595; in O.O., ib. B.I; with Subjv., ib. BB.
2,3; slve— slve,#>-B.4; slquidem, *.R.
5; Simoo.0, i&.R.6; phrases, t'ft.N.l; range
of tenses, t'6.N.2. IDEAL, 596; for un-
real, ib.n.I ; shift to unreal, t'S.B.2; after
non possum, *'&• a.3; in 6.O., ib. B.5.
UNREAL, 597; Impf. of Past, ib. B.I; In-
dic. in Apodosis, ib. BB.2,3; in O.O., ib.
B.4; after a vb. requiring Subjv., ib. B.
5; absque, i&.N.l. INCOMPLETE, 598-601:
omission of sign, 598; of vb. of Prot.,
599: of Prot., 600 ;_of Apod., 601: of COM-
PABISON, 602; in 6.O. general consider-
ation, 656: Logical, 657; Ideal, 658; Un-
real. 659; Pf. Inf. and potuisse, *. N-
COnducit— with Dat., 346, B. 2; with Gen.,
379; with Ace. Ger., 430.N.1.
confid— with Inf., 533.B.1; with tu,
553,3.
COnfldere— with Dat., 346.B.2 and N.2;
with Abl., 40L.N.6; with Inf., 527.B.2.
confirmare— with inf., 527.R.2.
congruere— with Dat., etc., 347,s.2.
conjugation— defined, 17; systems of, 120:
first, 122; second, 123; irregular second,
124; third, 125; third in io, 126: fourth.
127; deponents, 128: periphrastic, 129;
notes on; 130,131: change in, 136.
conjunction— defined, 16.7. and R.3.
coniungere — with Dat. or cum, 359.N.3.
CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES— exceptional se-
quence in, 513; syntax of, 551-558; gen-
eral division, 551 : Pure, 552: tantum
abest ut, ib. B.I; with dlgnus, etc., ib.
B.2 ; with idea of Design, 16. B.3: ut
non, without, ib. B.4 ; Complementary,
553: vbs. of Effecting, 553; vbs. of Cau-
sation, ib. 1; of Compelling, etc., ib. 2:
Happening, etc., ib. 3; impersonals, ib.t;
vbs. of Hindering, 554-556; quln with
vbs. of Preventing, 555,1; with vbs. of
Doubt, ib. 2; quln = ut non, 556; n5n
dubito quln, ib. BB.1,2 ; Explanatory
Ut, 557; Exclamatory question, 558; rel.
sentences, 631; with def. antecedent, t'6.
1; with indef. antecedent, t'6. 2: with
Comp., ib. 3: with adj., ib. 4: with quln,
632; Indie, for Subjv., 16. 2.BB.1.2.
consentaneum — with inf., 422.N.3.
COnsentire— with Dat., etc., 347.R.2.
consequi— and consequSns, with ut, 653,
1 and 4.
consldere— with in and Abl., 385,B.l.
consilium— in Abl. of Cause, 408.N.1 ; in
phrases, with Inf., 422.N.2, and 428.N.2;
with dare and ut, 546.NN.1 and 2.
cSnsistere— with Abl. of Material, 396,
N.I.
consonants — 6; double, ib.3; sounds of, 7;
phonetic variations in, 9; combinations
of, 10.B.1.
censors— with Gen., 374.N.2.
conspicari— with Inf., 527,n.l.
conspicere— with inf., 527.R.1.
constare — with Dat., etc., 347,s.2; with
Gen., 379; with Abl. of Material, 396,N.
1; with Nom. and Inf., 528.N.2.
constituere— with in and Abl., 385,n.l;
with Inf., 423,2,N.2; with ut, 546.N.1.
cOnstruetiO — ad stnsum, 211,B.1,N.3; prat-
gn&ns, 699.
GENERAL INDEX.
cSnsuSscere— with luf., 423.2.N.2; con-
SuStus, with Inf., 421,N.l,c.
COnsuStud6— in Abl. of Manner, 399.N.1;
in phrases, with Inf., 422.N.2, or ut, 557,
B.
cQnSulere— with two Aces., 339 and N.I;
with Dat., 346.B.2 and N.2; bonl COn-
sulere, 380,N.2.
contemporaneous action— 538-573; in Ex-
tent, 569,570: in Limit, 571-573.
contendere— with Dat., 346.N.6; with
Inf., 423.2.N.2; with ut, 546.N.1.
C0ntin6ri— with Abl. of Material, 396.N.1 ;
contentus, with Abl., 401.N.6.
contingit— with ut, 553,3; contigit,
with Dat., 346,B.2; sequence after, 513,
N.2; attraction of pred. after, 535.B.3.
continuance— vbs. of, with Inf., 423, and
N.2.
contra— position of, 413.B.1; as adv., 415;
as prep., 416,9; with atque, 643,N.3.
contracting— vbs. of, with Ace. Ger., 430.
contraction— of shorts, 732.
COntrariuS— with Gen. or Dat., 359, u.l:
with atque, 643.N.3.
contrasts— with hlC— ille, 307,BB.1,2 ;
with ipse, 311, B.I; with aliquis, 314;
alter— alter, etc., 323.
convenlre— ludic. for Subjv., 254,s.i;
with Dat., 346, N.2, 347, B. 2.
convicting— vbs. of, with Gen., 378; other
constr., ib. B.2.
coordination— defined, 472; without con-
junction, 472.B. ; syntax of, 473-503 ;
copulative, 474-482; adversative, 483-
491 ; disjunctive, 492-497 ; causal and
illative, 498-503.
C5pia— with Inf., 428.N.2.
copula — with pred., 205; itself a pred., ib.
N.; omitted, 209; agrees with pred.,
211,K.1,EX.C.
copulative— vbs., 206; with Nom. and Inf.,
ib. B.3. Particles, 474 ; omitted, ib. N.,
481. Sentences, 474-482 ; use of neg. to
connect, 480.
cor— decl. of, 63,8 ; cordi est, with Inf.,
422.N.5.
cSram— as adv., 415; as prep., 417,3.
cornus— decl. of, 68,5.
corpus — decl. of, 48-
correlatives— 109-111 ; pronominal adjs.,
109; advs., 110; cpds., Ill; coordinating
particles, as turn— turn, alias— alias,
etc., 482; of Bel., 618; absorption of, 619,
621; position of, 820; in comparative
sentences, 642; omitted, 642,3.
correptiou— 744.
COS — defective, 70,D.
countries— in Ace., with prep., 337.B.1 ;
without, ib. N.I; in Abl., 391,N.
crassitude— with Ace. of Extent, 335.B.1.
crassus— with Ace. of Extent, 335, K.I.
crastim— as Loc., 411.N.1.
creare— with two Aces., 340 ; with two
Noms., 206.
creation — vbs. of, with Inf., 280,1, b.
CrSdere— personal in pass., 217.N.1; with
Dat., 346.B.2 ; with Inf., 527.B.2 ; crSdi-
tur, with Inf., 528.B.2.
cretic— foot, 734 ; substitutions for, 806 ;
rhythms, 808-810.
cruciarl-with Inf., 533.R.1.
cuius — as poss. pron., 106.N.4.
Culpa— with Epexegetical Gen., 361,2.
cum — and quom, 7 ; in composition, 9,4 ;
with subst. to form cpd. subj., 285.N.2;
vbs. cpd. with take Ace., or Dat., 331,
347 ; with Abl. of Attendance, 392, and
B.I; to indicate Time, 394.N.2; with Abl.
of Manner, 399; with unnatural produc-
tions, 400,ii.2; position of,413,B.l; with
Abl. Ger., 433 ; as prep., 417,4 ; with e5
and quod, 525,2,N.2 ; (prlmum), as
soon as, 561-563 ; Causal,, 564, N.2 ; with
Iterative action, 566, 567 ; with Subjv.,
ib. N. ; derivation of, 578 ; general view
of, 579 ; Temporal, 580; fuit cum, ib.
B.I; meminl cum, ib. B.2; with Lapses
of Time, ib. B.3; in early Latin, ib. N.I ;
Inverse, 581 ; Explicative, 582 ; Condi-
tional, 583, 590,N.3; Iterative, 584; with
Subjv., ib. B. ; Circumstantial, 585-588;
Historical, 585; Causal, 586; Concessive
and Adversative, 687: cum non = with-
out, ib. B.2; cum — turn, 688; mood, ib.
2; cum interim, with Inf., 635.N.2; with
Indie, retained in O.O., 655,B,3.
-cumque— makes general relatives, 111,2.
CQnCta— Ace. of Respect, 338,2; may omit
in with Abl. of Place, 388.
Cunctarl— with Inf., 423,2,N.2.
cupere— with Pf. Inf., 280,2,e,N. ; with
Dat., 346,B.2; cupientl CSt, 353.N.2;
with Inf., 423AN.2; 538.N i ;
with Gen., 376.N.2.
cupiditas— with ut, 546.N.2.
cupidus— with Gen., 374.N.5.
cupressus— deci. of, 68,5.
512
GENERAL INDEX.
cura— with ut, 546.N.2 ; curae est, with
Iuf.,422,N.5.
Curare— with Inf., 423,2,N.2 ; with Ace.
Ger., 430. -v.l ; with part., 537.N.2; with
ut, 546.N.1; cura ut for Impv., 271,1,
and 2.N.2.
curriculo — as Abl. of Manner, 399.N.1.
Dactylic— foot, 734 ; substitutions. 783 ;
rhythm, 736 ; rhythms, 783-789.
damnas— indeclinable, 85,C.
daps— defective, 70,D.
dare— Pf. dedrot, 131,6 ; Pr. danunt,
133,iv., N.2 ; with ad or Dat., 345. u. 2 ;
with Final Dat., 356.it. 2; operam, with
Dat. Ger., 429.N.1, or ut, 546.N.1 ; with
Ace. Ger., 430.N.1 ; nuptum, etc., 435,
N.I ; with Pf. part., 637.N.2; permit, with
Ut, 653,2.
DATIVE — defined, 23,3 ; 1st decl. in al, a,
Sbus, as, els, 29,NN.3,4; 3d decl. in ei(
6, 37,2; 4th decl. in ubus, uel, U, 61.R.,
and N.2 ; 5th decl., uncommon, 63, K.I ;
in 8, 1, ib. N.2; in Greek substs., 66.N.2;
in adjs. in gi, a, abus, Is (for ife), 75,
NN.2,6 ; in I of pron. adjs., 76,2 ; with
act. vb. unchanged in pass., 217, 346,
B.I; gives End with vbs. of Taking, etc.,
340.K.2; with ei and vae, 343,1,N.2; of
Indirect Obj., 344 ; with trans, vbs.,
345 ; with vbs. of Taking Away, ib. B.I ;
and pr5, ib. B.2 ; with in trans, vbs.,
346; with cpd. vbs., 347; with vbs. cpd.
with d6, ex, ab, ib- »-5 ; and Ace. with
vbs. of Giving and Putting, 348: of Pos-
sessor, 349; of Personal Interest, 350 ;
Ethical, 351 ; of Reference, 352, 353 ;
with participles, 353 ; of Agent, 215,
354; Double, 356; with substs., 357: Lo-
cal, 358 ; with adjs., 359 ; with cpds. of
di, dis, 390,2,N.5; of Ger., 429.
flg_with Abl. for second Ace., 339,NN.2,3;
vbs. cpd. with take Dat., 347, B.5 ; with
Abl. of Separation, 390,1, and 2 ; to indi-
cate Time, 394.N.2; with Abl. of Origin,
395,and N.2 ; with Abl. of Respect, 397,
N.I; with Abl. of Cause, 408. N. 3: position
of, 413, B.I ; as prep., 416,5 ; with Abl.
Ger., 433 ; with part., 437.N.2 ; dS e5
quod, 525,2,N.2.
death— deponent vb. of as act. in Abl. Abs.,
410.N.1.
debSre— Indie, for Subjv., 254, K.I: Impf.
as tense of Disappointment, ib. R.2 ;
with Pf. Inf.. 280,2,6, and N.3: with Inf.,
423.2.N.2.
decgre— with Pf. Inf., 280,2An.l ; with
Dat., 346.N.3 ; with Abl. of Respect,
397 N.2.
dScernere— with Inf., 423.2.N.2, and 546,
B.I ; with ut, 546.N.1.
declension — defined, 17 ; varieties of, 27 :
rules for, 28: 1st, 29. 30: 2d, 31-33; stems
in -ro and -ero, 32: 3d, 35-60: stems of,
35 ; formation of Nom. Sg., 36 ; liquid
stems, 39-46; sibilant, 47-49; mute, 50-
55; vowel, 56-59; 4th, 61, 62; 5th, 63, 64;
vary between 5th and 3d, 63, R.2 ; of
Greek substs., 65 ; adjs. of 1st and 3d,
73 ; of pron. adjs., 76; parts., 80.
decorus— with Abl., 397.N.2.
decreeing— vbs. of, with Dat. Ger., 429,2.
dSdecet— with inf., 422,x.i.
deesse— with Dat., 349.R.4.
dgferre— with Gen. of Charge, 378.B.1.
dSfessus-with Inf., 421,N.l,c.
dSficere— with Ace., 346,N.3.
dSflgere— with in and Abl., 385,it.l.
degree — advs. of, modify other advs., 459,
N.2.
dSicere— with Abl., 390.2.N.3.
delectari— with Ace., 346.N.3.
deliberative questions— 265 ; Subjv. in
O.O., 651.R.2.
deliberatum est— with inf., 423.2.N.2.
dSlicium— decl. of, 68,3.
d8ligere— with two Aces., 340 ; with two
Noms., 206.
demanding — vbs. of, with ut, 546.
dSmergere— with in and Abl., 385, R.I.
demirari— with inf., 533.R.1.
dSmonstrare— with Inf., 627.R.2.
demonstratives— 104 ; attracted in Gen-
der, 211, B.5, and N.3 ; syntax of, 305-
307 : hie, 305 : iste, 306; ille, 307 ; hie
— ille, ib. BB.1,2 ; advs. similarly used,
ib. R.3 ; strengthened by quidem, ib.
B.4 ; reflexive of, 521, R. 5 ; followed by
quod, 525,2 ; continue a rel. clause,
636. N.I; position of, 676, R.I.
demovere— with Abl., 390.2.N.3.
denominative— 179,2, and N.; Pf. of vbs.,
134, v. ; formation of vbs., 192.
dense growths— suffixes for, 181,11.
dentals— 6,1: suffixes with, 186.
dSpellere— with Abl., 390.2.N.3.
deponent— 113 ; conjugation, 128; list of,
163-166; semi-, 167; how used, 220.
GENERAL INDEX.
513
deprecari— with ng, 548.N.1.
dgprehendl— with Gen. of Charge, 378,
B.I.
depriving— vbs. of, with Abl., 405. N-
derivative words — 179,2.
descent— suffixes for, 182,11.
deslderare-with inf., 423.2.N.2.
desiderative verbs — formation of, 191,3.
dSsinere— with Inf., 423,2,XN.2,3.
desire — adjs. of, with Gen., 374 ; vbs. of,
with Inf., 281,c.; 423,2,NN.2,4; sequence
after, 515. it. 3 ; with Ace. and Inf., 532 ;
with ut. »'&• N.l-4 ; with part., 537.N.1 ;
with complementary Final clause, 646.
dSsistere— with Abl., 390,2,N.3.
dSspgrare— with Dat., 346.B.2 ; with Inf.,
527, B.2.
determinative pronouns — 103 ; syntax of,
308.
deterrSre-with Inf., 423.2.N.2 ; with n6,
548.N.1 ; with quominus, 549.N.1.
deturbare— with Abl., 390,2,N,3.
deus— decl. of, 33.K.6.
dexter— decl. of, 74.E.1 ; Comp. of, 87,1,
B.1 ; ib. 2 and 7,
diaeresis — 6, 753.
dialysis— 724.
diastole— 721.
dica— defective, 70.D.
dlcere — with two Noms. in pass., 206 ;
omission of, 209.N.5 ; dixerat as Aor.,
241.N.1 ; dlcat, dlxerit aliquis, 257,? ;
with Ace. and Inf., 527.B.1 ; with Nom.
and Inf., 628, and N.I ; dlcitur and
dictum est, ib. «-2 ; not confined to 3d
person, ib. N.4 ; with ut, 546.N.1 ; die,
with Indie, question, 467.N.; dictll, i"
Sup., 436.N.
[diciS]— defective, 70.D.
dig— as Loc., 91,3 ; as Abl. of Time, 393,
B.6 ; diu, by day, 91, 2./.
difference — measure of, 403 ; vbs. of, with
Abl., ib. N.I.
differre— with Dat., 346.N.6.
difficile— comparison of, 87,3 ; with est
forSubjv., 254.B.1; with Inf., 421,N.l,c.
difficulty— adjs. of, with Abl. Sup., 436.N.2.
diffidere— with Dat., 346.B.2, and N.2 ;
not Abl., 401.N.6.
dlgnarl— with Abl. of Respect, 397.N.2.
dignus— with Gen., 374.N.10 ; with Abl.
of Kespect, 397.N.2 ; constr. after, 652,
B.S ; qnj or ut, with Subjv., 631,1, and
B.2.
33
diluvium— heteroclite, 68,6.
diminutive— suffixes for, 181,12, 182,12 ;
vbs., 192,2.
diphthongs — 4 and N. ; length of, 14 ;
quantity of, 706.
dis — in composition, 9,4.
disagreement — vbs. of, with Dat., 346.N.6.
dlscere— pass, of docSre, 339.N.4 ; with
Inf., 527.B.1.
discrepare— with Dat., 346.N.G.
discruciari— with Inf., 533,B.l.
disgust— adjs. of, with Gen., 374.
disinclination— adj. of, for advs., 325, R.O.
disjunctive — particles, 492 ; sentences,
492-497; particles omitted, 492, H. ; ques-
tions, 462; forms of, 468; indirect, 460,2.
displeasure — vbs. of, with Dat., 346 ; adjs.
of, with Abl. Sup., 436.N.2.
displicSre— with Dat., 346.B.2 ; displi-
cet, with Inf., 422.N.4.
disproportion — by quam pro, qul, ut,
etc., 298 ; by positive, with preps., ib.
B. ; omission of ut after quam, ib. N.2.
dispudet— with Gen., 377.N.1 ; with Inf.,
422.N.4.
dissentlre— with Dat., 346.N.6.
dissimilation — of Consonants, 9,5.
dissimilis— Comp. of, 87,3.
dissimulare— with inf., 627.B.2.
distaedet— with Gen., 377.N.1.
distare— with Ace., or a and Abl., 335, B.
2 ; with Dat., 346, N.6 ; with Abl. of
Measure, 403, N.I.
distributives— 97 ; with pluralia tan-
tum, ib. B.3 ; for cardinals, ib. N.I, 295,
N. ; syntax of, 296; in apposition, 323.
dlverbium — 747.
dives— Comp. of, 87,10.
divinam rem facere— with Abl. of
Means, 401,N.4.
docSre— with two Aces., or dS, 339, and B.
1; with ab, ib. B.2; doctus, ib. B.2, and
N.4; discere as pass., ib. N.4 ; constr.
after, 423.N.6.
doing — vbs. of, take obj. clause, 623, and
526,1, and N.4.
dolere— with Inf., 633.B.1 ; dolet, with
Dat., 346.N.1 ; with Dat. and Inf., 633,
B.I.
do!5— as Abl. of Manner, 399.N.1.
domus — decl., 61.B.2, 68,5; Ace. as Limit
of Motion, 337; Abl. of Separation, 390,
2; domi, 411.K.2; with Gen. of poss.
pron.,
GENERAL INDEX.
dSnare— with Dat. and Ace., or Ace. and
Abl., 348.B.1.
donee — derivation, 568 ami R. : of com-
plete coextension, with Indie., 569;
until, with Indie., 571; inverse, id. N.6;
with Subjv., 572; to express subordina-
tion, ib. R.
d5nicum— 568; range of, 571.N.4.
donique— range of, 571.N.4.
doubt— vbs. of, with quln, 555,2.
dropping — vbs. of, with quod clause, 525,
1; with ut, *'&• N-4-
dubitare-an, 457,2; with Inf., 423,2,*.
2 ; n5n dubito, with quln, 555,2,R.l;
with Interrog., ib. B.2 ; with Inf., t'6.
B.3, and N.
dubium — with an and Subjv., 457,2.
ducere— with pred. Nom. or phrase, 206,
B.1; with Final Bat., 356.B.2; with Gen.
of Price, 379: pSnsl ducere, 380,1,N.2;
deem, with Ace. and Inf., 527.B.2; lead,
with ut, 553,2.
dum— enclitic, with Impv., 269; with Pr.
Indie., 229, R. ; force of, 568, R. ; of com-
plete coextension, 569; of partial coex-
tension, 570: until, with Indie., 571; with
Subjv., 572; to express subordination,
ib.s..; provided that, 573; with modo,
ib. ; with Pr. for participle, 570,NN.l
and 2 -, causal, i&. ; retained, with Indie,
in O.O., 655.K.3, 663.1.N.1.
dummodo — provided that, 573.
duo — decl. of, 73,B., 95, and ambS, uter-
que, 292.
duritia— heteroclite, 68,2.
duty— vbs. of, with Inf., 423 and N.2.
E — sound of, 3; weakening of, 8,1; length
of final, 707,2; gaud exin cornp., 9,4.
ease— adjs. of, with Abl. Sup., 436.N.2.
ebur— decl. of, 44,5.
Scastor— strengthens atque, 477.N.2.
CCCe— with Ace. and Nom., 343,1, N.2.
ecquis— 106 and N.5.
ecthh'psis — 719,2.
edere— conjugation of, 172,N.
edicere— with Inf., 527.B.2; with ut, 646,
N.I.
Sducere— with Abl., 390.2.N.3.
effecting — vbs. of, have Final Sequence,
543.R.1, and N.2: constr. of, 553.
efferre— with Abl., 390.2.N.3.
efficere — with Subjv. and ut, 563,1 and 3;
with Inf., 527, B.2, 553, 2,N.
egSnuS— Comp. of, 87,5 ; with Gen. or
Abl., 405.N.3.
eggre— with Gen. or Ace., 383,1, 405.N.2.
ego— decl. of, 100; Gen. PI., nostrum,
nostrl, 100.R.2, 304,2 and 3; poss. pron.
instead, t'6. 2,N.2; nos in 6.O., 660,4.
ggredl— with Abl., 390.2.N.3.
egregie" — adv. of Degree, 439.N.2.
ei — with Dat. in exclamations, 343,1,^.2.
eicere— with Abl., 390,2,N.3.
elabi— with Abl., 390.2.N.3.
Elegiambus — 821.
elision— 719,1 ; in lam. Sen., 759,^.3; in
Dae. Hex., 784.N.5; in Pent., 786.N.2; in
Sapphic, 797, N.3; in Asclepiadean, 802,
K.2.
ellipsis — 688; see Omission,
em— with Ace. of Exclamation, 343,1,
N.2.
emere— with Gen., 379; bene emere, 380,
2.B.
eminence— words of, with Abl., 397.N.2.
eniittere — with Abl., 390,2,N.3.
emotion — vbs. of, with Ace., 330,R. and N.
2, 333,1, N.I; vbs. of, with Abl. of Cause,
408; with Ace. and Inf., 533; in Nom. of
Part., 536,x. 2; Causal sentences after,
542 and a.; perplexing, with indirect
question or si, 542.N.1.
emphasis — in arrangement, 672,2, a.
6n— in exclamations, 343,1,N.2.
enallage— 693.
enclitics — effect of, on pronunciation, 15,
R.l.
endeavour — vbs. of, with ut, 546, 1.
ending — vbs. of, with Inf., 423,2 and
N.2.
endings— of cases, 26,2, 27.
endowing — vbs. of, with Abl. of Means,
401.N.1.
enim— position of. 413.N.3, 484,B., 498.N.1 ;
yes for, 471,B.; strengthens sed, 485. N.
3, 498 ; asseverative, 498, N. 2 ; combina-
tions of, ib. N.6 ; after quia, ib. N.7.
enimv6r5— strengthens sed, 485.N.3.
Snitl— with Inf., 423,2,N.2.
enumerations — in Abl. without in, 387.
epanorthosis — 484, R.l.
epenthesis— ofvowels, 8,3; of consonants,
9,7.
epicene substantives— 21,3.
epulnm— heteroclite, 68,3.
erga— use of, 416,10; with Ace. Ger., 432
N.I.
GENERAL INDEX.
515
erg5— with Gen., 373; as adv., 399.N.1 ;
with Gen. Ger., 428.R.2 ; usage of, 502
and N.I ; position of.tfc. N.2 ; combina-
tions of, ib. K.3.
eripere— with Abl., 390,2,N.3.
grudlre— with Abl. or de, 339, K. 2 and N.
3; with in or Abl., 401.N.1.
6886— conjugation of, 116; early forms, ib.
NN.; cpds., 117; ascopula,205; esse pro,
in numero, efc., 206, u-l; omitted, 209
and KN., 280,2, 6,R.2 and c ; with Fut.
part, to form periphrastic, 247 ; cpd.
tenses with fui, etc., ib. E.I ; forem
for essem, ib. N.I, 250.N.2, 251.N.2 ;
with Pr. part., 247.N.2 ; futurum
esse lit, 248; other forms, ib. KN.; in
CO CSt Ut, 249; with Pf. part., 250;
variations, ib. BB..NN.; with Ger., 251,1;
with Final Dat., 356, B. 2; with Double
Dat., ib. B.3 ; with Gen., 379 ; with in
and Ace., 385, N. 3 ; with Abl., 401.N.7;
with Gen. Ger., 428.B.2; with Dat. Ger.,
429,1 ; futurus as adj., 437,N. ; esse
quod, 525.1.N.2; est, it is the case, with
Ut, 553,3 ; fuit cum, with Subjv., 580,
B.I ; restrictions with, 627, a.2 ; sunt'
qul, with Subjv., 631,2.
esseda— heteroclite, 68,1.
6t— in numerals, 96,4, 97,4; et— et, with
PL, 285.N.; usage of, 475; - et tamen,
ib. N.I; for etiam, ib. N.2, 482.5.N.2;
omitted, 481,2,N. and 3 ; with adjs. of
Likeness and Unlikeness, 643,N.2.
etenim— use of, 498 and NN.
Ethical Dative— 351.
etiam— strengthens comparative, 301 ;
syntax of, 478 and NN. ; yes, 471,1; and
quoque, 479 B. and N.I; with turn, 478,
N.I; after sed, V5rum, 482,5, and N.I.
etiamsi— 603 and N. ; syntax of, 604 and
RK.
etsl— 603; with Indie, or Subjv., 604; and
yet, ib. B.2; with part., 609.N.1, 667,N. ;
with adj. or adv., ib. N.2; with Inf., 635,
N.2.
Svadere — with two Noms., 206.
evenit— with Dat., 346,B.2 ; with ut,
553,3.
event — suffixes for, 181,2.
Svertere— with Abl., 390,2,N.3.
ex— in comp., 9,4; vbs. cpd. with, take
Dat., 347.E.5; with Abl. of Separation,
390,1 and 2; with Towns, 391,R.l; with
Abl. of Origin, 395 and N.2; with Abl. of
Material, 396; with Abl. of Respect, 397,
N.I; with Abl. of Measure, 402, B.2; with
Abl. of Cause, 408.N.3, 413.B.1; use as
prep., 417,6; with Abl. Ger., 433; ex 65
quod, 525,2,N.2.
exadversus— use of, 416,2.
excSdere— with Abl., 390,2,N.3.
CXCellere— with Dat., 347.B.4; with Abl.
of Respect, 397.N.2: with Abl. of Meas-
ure, 403.N.1.
excepto— with quod, 625,2,N.2.
exclamations— in Ace., 343,1; in Gen.,
383,3; in Ace. and Inf., 634; exclamatory
questions, 558.
excludere— with Abl., 390,2,N.3.
excluding— vbs. of, with Abl., 390,2.
exemplum— iu phrases with ut, 548,N.2.
exigere— with ordinal, 294 ; with two
Aces., 339 and N.I.
exire— with Abl., 390,2,N.3.
exlstimare— with Gen., 379; with ex and
Abl., 402,B.2; with Nom. and Inf., 528,
N.I; with Ace. and Inf., 527,B.2.
exlSx— defective, 85,2.
exorare— with ut, 553,2.
ex5rdirl— with lnf.,±23,2,N.2.
expedit— with Dat., 346,B.2.
expellere— with Abl., 390.2.N.3.
expers— with Gen., 374.N.2 ; with Abl.,
390.3.N.1.
expetere— with Pf. Inf. pass., 280,2, C,N.
explSre— with Gen., 383.1.N.2 ; explg-
nunt, 133.IV.N.2.
explicative cum— 580,NN.1,2, 582.
expSnere— with in and Ace., 385.N.2.
expQscere— with two Aces., 339 and H.I.
exprimere— with ut, 553,1.
expugnare— with ut, 553,1.
exsequias— with ire, 333,2,B.
exsistere — with Abl., 390,2,N.3.
exsolvere— with Abl., 390,2,N.3.
exspectare— constr. of, 572.
exspectatione— as Abl. of Respect, 398,
N.I.
exspes— defective, 85,2.
extent — in Degree, 334; in Space, 335; in
Time, 336; Ace. of, as subj. of pass.,
336,N.3.
exterior— Comp. of, 87,2 and 7.
extorquSre— with ut, 553,1.
extra— as adv., 415; as prep., 416,11.
extrgmum— Comp. of, 87,2 ; with masc.
subj., 211.B.-1 ; with ut, 553,4.
exturbare— with Abl., 390,2,N.3.
5i6
GENERAL INDEX.
exui— with Ace. of Respect, 338.N.2; with
Dat. and Ace., or Ace. and Abl., 348, R-1-
facere— early Pf., fgced, 131,6 ; omission
of, 209.N.5; mirum factum, 209.N.2;
fac (ut) for Impv., 271,1 ; ludos and
second Ace., 342 ; with pred. Gen., 366,
E! ; nihil reliqui, 369.K.2 ; quod fa-
cere possum, 372, N. 3 ; with reum and
Gen., 378.R.1 ; with Gen. of Price, 379 ;
bonl, ib. 1.N.2 ; (sacrum) facere, with
Abl., 401,NN.4,7 ; finem facere, with
Dat. Ger., 429.N.1 ; represent, with Ace.
and Inf., 527,K.2; with Pf. part., 537.N.2;
with consecutive clause, 553,1 ; with
Inf., 553.2.N.; facere (fax5) ut as pe-
riphrasis, ib. l ; no"n possum (facere)
quln, 556 ; Sup. of, 436.N.
facilis— comparison of, 87,3; with Inf.,
421,N,l,c.
facinus— with est and Inf., 422.N.2.
faex— decl. of, 52,7, 70,C.
fagus — heteroclite, 68,5.
falSUS— without Comp., 87,9 ; with ut,
553,4.
fama— with est and Inf., 627.R.2.
fames— heteroclite, 68,8.
farl— conj. of, 175,3, and N.
fas— 70.B. ; withlnf., 422.N.2, 428.N.2; with
Abl. Sup., 436, N. 2.
fattening— vbs. of, with ex, ab, d6, 385,
B.2.
fastldiSsus— with Gen., 374.N.5.
fatBrl— with Ace. and Inf., 627.B.2.
fatum— with est au(l Iui'-, 422.N.2, and
428.N.2.
[faux]— decl. of, 62,7.
favSre— with Dat., 346, R. 2.
fear — sequence after vbs. of, 515, R. 3 ;
clauses of, and Final Clauses, 543, R. 3 ;
syntax of clause of, 650; Inf. or Indirect
question after, ib. NN.4,5.
femur— decl. of, 44,5, 68,12.
fere— position of, 677.K.1.
feme -with foedus, 333,2,a.
ferox— with est and Inf., 533.R.1.
ferre— conj. of, 171; I5gem with ut,
646.N.1 ; in phrases with ut, 653.1
and 2.
fSstlnare— with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
flCUS— heteroclite, 68,5.
fidem— habere with Dat., 346,n. 5.
fldere— with Dat., 348.B.2 and u.2 ; with
Abl., 401.N.6.
fieri— conjugation of, 173 and NN. ; with
two Noms., 206, 304,R.l ; with Gen. of
Price, 379 ; with ex or d6, 396,N.2 ; = to
be sacrificed, with Abl., 401,NN.5,7; with
ut, 553,3; fieri potis est ut, ib. ».
figure— Whole and Part, 323.N.2; Figures
of Syntax and Rhetoric, 688-700 ; of
Prosody, 718-728.
fllia— decl. of, 29.B.4.
filling— vbs. of, with Abl., 405.
filum— heterogeneous, 67,2,6.
FINAL SENTENCES — with Interrogative
particle, 470 ; general view, 643, 544 ;
Pure, 645; ut n5, or ut non, ib. RR.1,2;
Complementary, 546-549 ; with vbs. of
Will and Desire, 646 ; Inf. instead, ib.
B.I ; with vbs. of Hindering, 547-549 ;
Subjv. without ut, t'k B.2 ; ut n§, ib.
B,3 ; with Substantives, ib. N.2 ; Inf.
instead, ib. N.3 ; nS with vbs. of Pre-
venting, 648; quominus, 649; with vbs.
of Fear, 550; eight circumlocutions for,
644.B.2 ; sequence in, 512.
final syllables—quantity of, 711-713-
fine— in Gen. or Abl., 378.R.3.
fined)— as prep., 417,7.
fitness— adjs. of, with Dat., 359; with Dat.
Ger.,429.
flagitare — with Abl. or g, 339, i:l, and
N.I ; with ut, 546,NN.1,3.
flagitium hominis— 369.N.1, 361.N.3.
flamen— defective, 70, D.
flocci— as Gen. of Price, 380,1.
fluere— with Abl. of Means, 401,N,5.
flumen— with Gen. of App., 361,N.l.
foedus— with ferire, 333, 2,R. ; in phrases
with ut, 646.N.2.
following— vbs. of, with ut, 653,3.
foot — in Metre, 733 ; names of, 734 ; equal-
ity of, 740 ; conflict of Word and Verse,
750.
foras-91,l,d.
forbidding— vbs. of, with Dat., 346 ; with
116, 548.
forgetting — vbs. of, with Gen. or Ace., 376
and B.2.
FORMATION OF WORDS— 176-200 ; simple
words, 179-192; primitives and deriva-
tives, 179 ; suffixes, 180 ; formation of
substs., 181 ; of adjs., 182 ; with suf-
fixes, 183. Suffixes in detail— vowels,
184 ; gutturals, 185 ; dentals, 186 ; la-
bials, 187 ; s, 188 ; liquids, 189 ; forma
tion of vbs., 190 ; verbalia, 191 ;
GENERAL INDEX.
517
fvequentativea or intensives, ib. 1 ; in-
choatives, ib. 2 ; desideratives, ib. 3 ;
causativcs, ib. 4 ; meditatives, ib. 6 ;
denominatlva, 192 ; cpd. words, 193-
200; substs., 191-198 ; vbs.,199, 200; seo
compounds.
formldare— with Iiif., 423,2,N.2, and 533,
K.I.
forsitan— 457.2.N.
forte nisi— 591.R.4, and N.3.
fortiter— very, 439.N.3.
forum — detective, 70,D.
fraude — as Abl. of Manner, 399,N.l.
fremere— with Ace. and Inf.,533,B.l.
frequSns— in pred. attribution, 325.R.6 ;
with Abl., 405.N.3.
frequentative verbs — formation of, 191,1.
fretum— heteroclite, 68,5.
fretus— with Abl., 401.N.6.
friendliness— adjs. of, with Dat., 369.
frugl— 85,C.; Comp. of, 90-
frul— with Abl., 407, and N.2,6 ; personal
Ger., 427.N.5.
frflnlSCl— with Abl., 407.N.2.&.
[frux] —defective, 70,D.
fugere— with Inf. for Impv., 271.2.N.2;
fugit m6, with Pr. Inf., 281.2.N.
fugitans— with Gen., 375,N.2.
fulmentum — heteroclite, 68,3.
fulness— suffixes for, 182,10.
fulness— adjs. of, with Gen., 374 ; vbs. of,
with Gen., 383,1.
function— suffixes for, 181,9; in Dat. Ger.,
429.
fungi— with Abl., 406 and N.2,c; personal
Ger., 427.N.5.
fustis— heteroclite, 68,5.
FUTURE— 112,3; formation of, 114,115;
early forms, 130,3 ; part, in urum for
fern., 211, N.I; definition of, 223; usage
of, 243; of vo!5 and possum, »&• R-2; as
gnomic, ib. N.I ; in Impv. sense, 243;
periphrasticact., 247; Indie, for Deliber-
ative Subjv., 254.N.2; part, act., 283;
part, as subst., 437.N.1 ; part, as an
adj., 438.N. ; representation of in 6. O.,
514, 515; periphrastic in Unreal Cond.,
ib. R.I; Inf., 530; in rel. sentences, 622;
syntax of part., 669, 670.
FUTURE PERFECT — 112,3 ; formation of,
114,115; in S5, 131,4,6,1; defined, 223;
syntax of, 244; as Fut., ib. R.I; with
n51o, V0l5, pOSSUm, etc., ib. H.3; in
both clauses, ib. H.4 ; independent use
of, t'6. N.I ; periphrastic, with habe5,
ib. N.2 ; as Impv., 245 ; Representation
of, iu 6. O., 514,515; Pf. and Plupf. peri-
"phrastic in Unreal Condition, 515.R.1;
in rel. sentences, 622.
Galliambic Verso— 818.
gaudgre— with si, 542.N.1 ; ggvlsus as
Pr., 282, N.
gender— 19; common, 21,1; epicene,il>.3;
substantlva mobilia, ib. 2 ; of 1st
Decl., 30; of 2d Decl., 34; of 3d Decl., 39,
43,46,49,55,58 ; of 4th Decl., 62; of 5th
Decl., 64; concord in, 286; neut. PI. with
feminines, ib. 3.
GENITIVE — defined, 23,2 ; of 1st Decl. in
as, SI, um, 29.RR..NN. ; of 2d Decl. in I
(from stems in io), in um, in el, 33, RR.,
NN. ; of 3d Decl. in us, CS, 37,1 ; in um,
ium, 38,2, 54, 67.R.3; of 4th Decl. in OS,
is, I, UUm, 61.N.1; of 5th Decl. in 6s,
SI, S, 63.N.1 ; of Greek substs. in 5n,
eon, 65,R.l; oes, 66.N.1; of adjs., 73 ; in
I, SI, aes, es, um, 75.NN. ; of pron. adjs.
iu 1US, 76,1: of adjs. of three endings in
um, ium, 79.R.2, 82, 83.N.2; of Comp. of
part., 89.R.3 ; of Cardinals, 95.B.2; of
Distributives, 97,R.l.
not subj. of pass., 217.R.1 ; with mflle,
293 and N.; with Comp. for Abl., 296.N.2;
mei,etc., asobjective, 304,2; nostrum as
Part., ib.S; poss. pron. for Gen., 304,2,N.
2: in app. to poss. pron., 321,R.2; Part.
Gen. for Part. App., 323, R. ; with nSmen
est, 349.R.6; general view,360; translated
by abstract subst., ib. R.2; Adnominal,
Appositive, 361; Epexegetical, 361; Pos-
sessive, 362; flagitium hominis, 361,
N.I; Family, 362, N.I; Chorographic, ib.
N.2; Subjective and Objective, 363; two
with one subst., ib. R.2 ; 1st and 3d per-
sons as possessive, 364; of Quality, 365;
as Pred., 366 ; with facere, ib. B.I;
auct6ris, ib.; generis, 388, R. ; with
prepositional subst., 373; with adjs.,
374 and NN.; with participles and ver-
bals, 375; with vbs. of Memory, 376;
with vbs. of Emotion, 377; with Judicial
vbs., 378; with vbs. of Eating and Buy-
ing, 379,380 ; with interest and r§fert,
381; with vbs. of Fulness, 383,1; with
vbs. of Separation, ib. 2; in Exclama-
tions, ib. 3; pred. with Inf., 422.N.5;
Ger., 428 ; with esse, causa, etc., ib. B.
5i8
GENERAL INDEX.
2; Ger. with PI. subst., ib. K.I ; Ger.
with vb., ib. N.4; position of, 676 and
NN.1,2.
genus- decl. of, 48; id genus, 336, N.2;
with Epexegetical Gen.. 361,2.
gerSns— with Gen., 375.N.2.
GERUND and GERUNDIVE— 112,5 ; forma-
tion of, 115,3 ; early forms, 130,8 ; Agent
of, in Dat., 215,2; with ease to form
periphrasis, 251; force of Gerundive,
ib. N.I; syntax of, 425-433; and Inf.,
425; and vb., 426; Gerundive for
Gerund, 427; impersonal Gerundive,
ifi.N.2; from intrans. vbs., ib. N.4; Gen.
of, 428; Inf. instead, ib. N.2; depend-
ing on vb., ib. N.4; Dat. instead, z&.N.S;
Dat. of, 429; Ace. of, 430 ; Abl. of, 431 ;
paralleled by part., ib. N.3; Ace. of,
with preps., 432 ; with ad after vbs. of
Hindering, z&.R.l ; Abl. of, with preps.,
433.
gestire— with Inf., 423.2.N.2, 533, R. 1 .
gignere— (genitus), with Abl. of origin,
395.N.1.
giving — vbs. of, with Dat. and Ace., or
Ace. and Abl., 348 ; with Inf., 423.N.1.6.;
with Ace. Ger., 430.
gloriarl — with Ace. and Inf., 527.R.2.
gloriosum— with est and inf., 422, N.3.
Glyconic verse — 795.
gracilis— Comp. of, 87,3.
gratia— with Gen., 373; withposs. pron.,
ib. R.2; with Gen. Ger., 428.R.2; gra-
tils, as Abl. of Manner, 399,N.l.
gratificari-with Dat., 346.R.2.
gratularl— with Dat., 346.B.2.
gravari— with Inf., 423,2,N.2.
Greek substantives — decl. of, 65; Greek
Ace., 338.
growth— vbs. of, in Abl. Abe., 410.N.1.
guttural— vowels, 2,1 ; consonants, 6,1 ;
suffixes with, 185.
hab6re— with, two Noms. in pass., 206 ;
withPf. part, to denote Maintenanceof
the Result, 238,241,N.2, 244.N.2 ; first
Impv. wanting, 267.R.; with two Aces.,
340.R.1; with pr5, loco, numero,and
a second Ace., ib.; with Final-Dat., 356,
E.2; with Gen. of Price, 379; pgnsl
kabere, ib. 1.N.2; with in and Ace.,
385,N.3; with Ace. Ger., 430.N.1; habeo
dicendu.m, >*• N.2; be able, with Inf.,
423.2.N.2.
habit — vbs. of, with Inf., 423 and N.2.
haerSre— with Dat., 346,N.f>.
hanging— vbs. of, with ex, ab, d6, 385.R.2.
happening— sequence after vbs. of, 513,
B.2; vbs. of, with quod clause, 525,1;
Ut instead, ib. N.5; vbs. of, with con-
secutive clause, 553,3.
hardening— in a verse, 723.
baud— 441 and 443, with NN.; scio an,
457,2.
(h)av6re— 175,4.
helluarl— with Abl., 407,N.2,e.
hendiadys — 698.
heteroclites — 68-
heterogeneous substantives— 67.
heterologa — 69, c.
hiatus— defined, 720 ; in lam. Oct., 763,
N. ; in Anap. Oct., 778.N.1 ; in Dact.
Hex., 784.NN.6.7 ; in Sapphic, 726.N.
hie— 104, landNN.; syntax of, 305; con.
temptuous character of, 306.N.; and
ille, 307,RR.1,2; strengthened by qui-
dem, ib. E.4 ; two forms of, refer to
different substs., ib. N.3 ; hie— illic,
hinc— hinc, hinc— inde, hinc— illinc,
illinc — hinc, inde— nine, 482,2 ; hOc
with ut, 557, n. ; hums, in Gen. of Price,
380,1 ; with Abl. of Time, 393.R.4 ; in
6. 0., 660,3 ; bine as coordinating con-
junction, 603.
hiems— decl. of, 40 ; in Abl. of Time, 393,
R.6.
hindering — sequence after vbs. of, 643,
R.2 and N.2 ; vbs. of, with nS, 648 ; with
quin, 554-556 ; and vbs. of Preventing,
655; and vbs. of Doubt, ib. 2.
Historical cum — 585 and NN.
HISTORICAL INFINITIVE— parallel with
Impt.,254,R.; syntax of, 647 ; conjunc-
tions with, ib, N.2.
HISTORICAL PERFECT— 224 ; force of, 239 ;
and Pure Pf., 235 ; and Impf., 231, 240;
for Plupf., 239.N.; as Potential of Past,
258.N.2.
HISTORICAL PRESENT — 224 and 229; with
dum, 229.N..570.
historical tenses— 225.
hodiernus— in pred. Attrib., 325.R.6.
hom5— in early Latin, 42, N.
honor— and honos, 45, N.
hope — constr. of, vbs. of,423,N.5; sequence
after, vbs. of, 615.R.3; vbs. of, withAcc.
and Inf., 527.R.4.
HORACE— Lyric Metres of, 826.
GENEEAL INDEX.
519
horrSre— with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
horrescere— with inf., 423.2.N.2.
hortarl— with Inf., 423.2.N.2; with ut,
646.N.1 ; hortatus, as Pr., 282.N.; nor-
tatu, as Abl. of Cause, 408.N.1.
humilis— Comp. of, 87,3.
humus— in Abl. of Separation, 390,2,N.4 ;
liumi, as Loc., 411, K. 2.
hypallage"— 693.
hyperbaton— 696.
hypotaxis— 472.
I— and J., 1.R.2 ; sound of, 3 ; weakening
of, 8,1; effect of, on preceding vowel,
12.R.2 ; I-class of vb. stems, 133, vi.;
length of final, 707,4.
iam— with Pr. indie., 230; iam diu, iam
prldem, ib. ; with Impf. Indie., 234 ;
iam— iam, 482,1, and N.I ; iam vero,
487.N.3 ; iam duclum, with Impv., 269.
lambelegus verse— 820.
Iambic— law, 716, 717 ; foot, 734 ; rhythm,
736; rhythms, 767-767,
ictus — conflict of, with Accent, 749.
IDEAL CONDITION — from present point of
view, 596,1; from past point of view, ib.
2; = Unreal, ib. E.I; Bhift to Unreal,
ib. R.2; after non possum, ib. K.3; in
O. O.,ib. K.5,658.
idem— decl. of, 103,2, and NN.; syntax of,
310 ; with que, et, atque, ib- K.I -, the
same as, with qui, ut, atque, cum,
or Dat., 310.R.3, 359.N.6, 642.B.1 ; not
used with is, 310.K.3 ; iu pred. attrib.,
325.R.2.
id6neus — constrs. with, 552.B.2 ; with
qui and Subjv. , 631,1.
iecur-decl. of, 44,5, 68,12.
igiunus— with Gen., 374.N.1.
igitur— position of, 484.K.; usage of, 501;
with ergo, 502.N.3; correl. of si, 590.N.1.
ignorance— adjs. of, in pred. app., 325, »•
6 ; with Gen., 374.
IgnSrare— with Inf., 627.B.1.
ignoscere— with Dat., 346.B.2.
ILLATIVE SENTENCES— 499, 500-
ille - decl. of, 104,3, and NN. ; forms from
olio, ib. N.I ; Syntax of, 307 ; and hie,
ib. BE.1,2 ; et ille, ib- K.2 ; strength-
ened by quidem, ib- n.4 ; repeats a
subst., ib. N.2: two forms with different
antecedents, ib. N.3 ; refers to oblique
case of is, ib. N.4 ; with Abl. of Time,
393.R.4 ; illinc— hinc, bine— illinc,
hic-illic, 482,2; illud with ut, 657.R.;
in 0. O., 660,2.
illudere— with Dat., etc., 347.H.2.
illustris— with Abl. of Kespect, 397.N.2.
imbecillus— and imbecillis, 84,1.
imber— deci. of, 44,2, 45.R.1.
imberbis-and imberbus, 84,2.
immane— with quantum and indie.,
467.N.
immensum— with quantum and indie.,
467.N.
Immo— useof, 471,c; scansion of, 717,N.l.
immolare— with Abl. of Means, 401.N.4.
immunis— with Abl. of Sep., 390.3.N.1.
impedimento— with esse and nS, 548,
N.I.
impedire— with Inf., 423.2.N.2 ; with nS,
548.N.1 ; with quSminus, 649.N.1.
impellere— with ut, 553,2; impulsus,
impulsu, of Cause, 408, NN. 1 and 2.
impendio— very, 439, N. 3.
impendgre— with Dat., etc., 347.R.2.
impgnsS— very, 439.N.3.
imperare— with Dat., 346.R.2 ; with Inf.,
423,2,N.2, 532,N.l; with ut, 546.N.1.
IMPERATIVE— 112,4 ; early forms, 130,5 ;
Subjv. for, 263 ; answers deliberative
question, 265.N.; usage, 266-275 ; First
and Second, 267 ; strengthening words,
269; negative of, 270; pronouns with,
267.N. ; concord with, 211.N.2 ; periph-
rases of, 271; representatives of, 272:
of Past, 272,3 ; tenses of, 278 ; for Pro-
tasis, 593,4 ; in Subjv. with O. O., 652
and R.I.
IMPEEFECT— 112,3 : early forms, 130,2;
force of, 223, 231; and Hist. Pf., 232; of
Endeavor, Disappointment, and Resist-
ance to Pressure, 233 ; a tense of Evolu-
tion, ib. N.I ; overlapping, ib. N.2:562 ;
of Awakening, ib. N.3; with iam, etc.,
234; of opposition to Present, 254, E.2;
in Apodosis of Action begun, ib. B.3,
597.E.2 ; as Potential of Past, 858 ; in
Wish, 260; with vellem, ib- B.; Subjv.
as Concessive, 264 ; Subjv. as Impv. oi'
Past, 272,3 ; tense relations of Subjv.,
277; in Sequence, 510.B. ; in Coincidence,
613,N.3 ; Subjv. as Principal Tense, 517,
R.2.
impersonal verbs— 208,1 and 2 ; divine
Agt. expressed, ib- 1,N.; vbs. of Saying,
tic., 208,2,N.2, 628; in Ger. constr.,427.
N.4 ; with ut, 553,4.
520
GENERAL IXDEX.
impertlre — with Dat. and Ace., or Ace.
and Abl., 348.E.1 ; laborem, with Dat.
Ger., 429,1.
impetrare— with ut, 553,1.
implgre— with Gen., 383.1.
implorare— with ut only, 546.N.3.
imponere— with in and Ace., 385.N.2.
impos— with Gen., 374.N.3.
iinprimere — with in and Abl., 385, B.I.
imprudfins— in pred. attrib., 325,n.G.
impulsu— as Abl. of Cause, 408,N.l.
in— in composition, 9,4; vbs. cpd. with
take Ace. or Dat., 331, 347; with Countries
and Towns, 337, B.I ; with Ace. for Dat.,
345, r.. 2 ; with app. to Towns, 386,R.l ;
with books, 387; throughout, 388, it.; with
recipere, 389 ; with Abl. of Time, 394,
B. and K.2; with Abl. of Cause, 408.N.3;
position of, 413.R.1 ; as prep., 418,1 ;
with Ace. Ger., 432, and N.I ; with Abl.
Ger., 43d and N.I ; with part., 437.N.2 ;
in eo quod, 525,2,N.2.
inanis— with Gen., 374.N.1.
incSdere— with Dat., etc., 347.R.2.
incendl— with ira and inf., 533.B.1 ; in-
census , of Moving Cause, 408.N.2.
incertum— with an and Subjv., 457,2.
inchoative verbs — 133, v., 191,2.
incidere— with Dat., etc., 347.B.2.
inddere— with in and Abl., 385.R.1.
incipere— with Inf., 423.2.N.2 ; with Or-
dinal, 294, N.
incitatus — of Moving Cause, 408.x. 2.
inclination— suffixes for, 182,2.
inclination — adjs. of, in pred. attr., 325,R.
6 ; vbs. of, with Inf., 423 and N.2.
incliidere— with in and Abl., 385, K. l.
inconunodare— with Dat., 346.N.1.
incorporation — of antecedent, 616 ; qua
prudentia es, 616,1, N.2; of correlative,
619.
incrgdibile— with Inf., 422.N.3; with
quantum and Indie., 467.N.
increpare — charge, with Gen., 378, K.I.
increpitare— charge, with Gen., 378.K.1.
incubare— with Dat., etc., 347.R.2.
incumbere — with Dat., etc., 347, R.2.
[indago]— defective, 70,D.
inde— as coordinating conj., 603 ; in con-
trast with bine, 482,2.
indecorus— and indecoris, 84,1.
indefinite pronouns— 107 ; syntax of, 313-
319 ; quldam, 313 ; aliquis, 314 ; quis,
315 ; quispiam, 316 ; quisquam and
ullus, 317 ; quisque, 318 : alter and
alius, 319 ; rel. with Indie., 254,n.4,
625.
INDICATIVE— 112,4 ; early forms of, 130,1-4;
meaning of, 254; in Apodosis, 254.R.3 ;
with iudef. rel., ib. R.4 ; Pr. for Delib-
erative Subjv., ib. N.2; tense relations
of, 276 ; neg. of, 257 ; in questions, 463,
464; after nescio quis, etc., 467.R-1; in
Relative Sentences, ib. E.2 ; in Tem-
poral Sentences, 560,1 ; to express De-
sign, 630.N.2.
indigere— with Gen., 383,1, 405.N.2.
indlgnarl— with Inf., 533.R.1 ; with si,
542.N.1.
indlgnus— with Gen., 374.N.10 ; with qul,
Ut, or Inf., 552.R.2 ; with qul and
Subjv., 631,1 and B.I.
indigUS — with Abl. or Gen., 405.N.3.
induere — with Dat. and Ace., or Ace. and
Abl., 348.B.1 ; indul, with Ace. of Re-
spect, 338,N.2.
indulgere — with Dat., 346.B.2 and N.2.
inermis— and inermus, 84,2.
inesse— with Dat., etc., 347.R.2.
Inferior— 87,2; with Dat., 296.N.3.
INFINITIVE — 112,5; formation of, 116,3;
early forms, 130,6 ; aor. in -xe, etc.,
131,4,6,4 ; Fut. in assere, ib- ; act. for
pass.,213,R.,c.; usage of, 279; assubst.,
280; after dgbeS, ib. 2.6.N.3; after
decuit, oportuit, ib- 2,&,R.land2; as
representative of Indie., 281; after
meniini, etc., ib. 2,N. ; syntax of, 419-
424; with Ace. as subj.,420; assubst.,
421 ; traces of Locative nature, ib. N. 1 ;
assubj., 422; as obj., 423; ut instead,
ib. N.4; as pred. with esse, 425; with
preps., ib. N.; Fut. pass., 435, N. 4; se-
quence after, 618 ; Ace. and Inf. after
vbs. of Saying and Thinking, 527 ; part,
instead, ib. N.I ; tenses after these vbs.,
529-531; after posse, velle, ib. N.3;
after spSrare, ib. N.4; with vbs. of
Will and Desire, 532 ; with vbs. of Emo-
tion, 533 ; ut instead, 532,NN.3,4 ; in
Exclamations, 534 ; and quod, ift.R.l ;
Ace. and Inf. as subj., 535; Ace. and
Inf. after vbs. of Emotion, 542; with
vbs. of Will and Desire, 646.N.3 ; with
vbs. of Fear, 550.N.5 ; with dlgnus, etc.,
562, R.2 ; Ace. and Inf. iu Relative Sen-
tences, 635 ; after potius, etc., 644.R.3,
646 ; in O. O., 650. See Hist. Inf.
GENERAL INDEX.
521
Infinitum— with est instead of sit, 254,
B.I ; with quantum and Indie., 467.N.
infitias-vo.A.; ire,333,2,B.
inflection— 17.
infra— with Abl. of Measure, 403.N.1 ; as
adv., 415 ; as prep., 416,12.
infrgnus— and infrgnis, 84,1.
ingratils— as Abl. of Manner, 399, N.I.
ingenii— as Loc., with adjs., 374.N.7.
ingredi— with inf., 423.2.N.2.
inhaergre— with Dat., etc., 347,11.2.
inhiare— with Dat., etc., 347.R.2.
inicere manum— with Ace., 342.
iniuria — as Abl. of Manner, 399,N.l.
innatus— with Dat., 347.B.2.
Inner Object— Ace. of, 328, 330, 332; Abl.
instead, 333.2.N.4 ; after vbs. of Taste
and Smell, ib. 2.N.5.
inops— with Gen., 374, N.I; with Abl.,
405.N.3.
inquam— 175,2 ; inquit, impersonal, 208,
2.N.2; inciting 6. B., 648.R.2; lacking
forms supplied by dicere, ib. B.3.
inquiring— vbs. of, with two Aces., 339,
and B.l.NN.l and 2.
Inscrlbere— with in and Abl., 385.R.1.
insculpere— with in and Abl., 385,R.l.
inservire— with Dat., 347.B.2.
fnsignis— with Abl. of Kespect, 397.N.2;
Inslgniter as adv. of Degree, 439.N.2.
Insidiarl— with Dat., 346,n.2.
Insinuate— with Dat., 347.B.2.
Insistere— with Dat., 347.R.2.
Instar— 70.B.; with Gen. , 373.
Instare— with Dat., 347.B.2; with Inf.,
423,2,N.2.
Instruere— with dg, 339.N.3.
instrument — suffixes for, 181,6 ; in Abl.,
214, 401; with ab, 214, a. 2 ; Abl. of con-
trasted with Abl. of Attendance, 392.R.2.
INSTBUMENTAL— Case, 23, N.
Insugtus— with Gen., 374.N.4.
integrum— with Inf., 422, N.3.
intellegere— with inf., 527, B.I; intel-
lects as Sup., 436.N.
intendere— with Inf., 423,2,N.2; inten-
tus, with Abl., etc., 359, N. 5.
intensive verbs — formation of, 191,1.
inter — with reflexive to express recip-
rocal action, 221 ; vbs. cpd. with, take
Ace. or Dat., 331,347 ; to designate Time,
394.N.2; position of, 413, B.I ; as prep.,
416,13; with Ace. Ger., 432 and N.I; with
part., 437, N. 2.
intercalaris— and intercalarius, 84,2.
intercSdere— with Dat., 347, R. 2; with
ng, 548.N.1; with quln, 555,1.
intercludere — with Dat. and Ace., or
Ace. and Abl., 348.B.1; with Abl., 390,2,
N.3 ; with ng, 548.N.1; with quin, 555,1.
intercurrere— with Dat., 347.B.2.
interdicere— with Abl., 390.2.N.3 ; with
n6, 548.N.1; with quln, 555,1.
interdum— coordinates with alias, 482,
l.N.l.
interesse— with Dat., 347.B.2 ; interest,
with Gen. and Abl., 381; with Norn.,
ib. N.3 ; constr. of Object of Concern.
382.1 and 2 ; constr. of Thing Involved,
ib. 3 ; with ut, 553,4.
Interest— Dat. of Personal, 350.
interior— 87,2 and 8.
interjection — 16.B.2; no syntax, 201.B.1.
intermittere— with inf., 423,2,N.2.
internecio— defective, 70,B.
interpellate— with ng, 548.N.1.
interponere— with ng, 548.N.1.
interrogate— with two ACCS., or dg, 339,
B. 1 and N.I; with Indie., 467.N.
interrogative pronouns — 106 ; distin-
guished from rel., 467.B.2; with part..
469; in Final Sentence, 470; doubling
of, ib. B.
INTEBKOGATIVE SENTENCES — 450 - 470 ;
simple and cpd., 452 ; particles in, 454-
457; moods in, 462-467; Indie., 463,464;
Subjv., 465,466 ; after vb. of Wonder,
542.N.1; after vb. of Fear, 650, N. 4; for
Protasis, 593,4; in 5. O., 651 and BK.
intervenlre— with Dat., 347.R.2.
intra— to designate Time, 394.N.2; posi-
tion of, 413.B.1; as adv., 415; as prep.,
416,14.
intransitive verbs— used impersonally,
208.2 ; used transitively, 213.R.& ; con-
strued as pass., 214,B.l ; with neut.
subj. in pass., 217; with personal Ger.,
217.B.2; with Pf. part. pass, used active-
ly, 220, N.I; Gerund of, used imperson-
ally, 251,2.
inusitatum— with ut, 553,4.
invadere — with Dat., 347.B.2.
invgnlrl— with Nom. and Inf., 6E8.N.1;
inventu in Sup., 436.N.
inverse— donee, 571.N.C ; cum, 631 ; at-
traction of rel., 617, N. 2.
invicem — to indicate reciprocality, 221.
B.2.
522
GENERAL INDEX.
mvid6re— with personal pass., 217.N.1;
with Dat., 346.R.2 and N.2; with Inf.,
533.K.1.
invidus— constr. of, 359.N.5.
invltUS— in pred. app., 325.B.6 ; invitO
est, 353.N.2.
ioculo— as Abl. of Manner, 399.N.1.
locus— heterogeneous, 67,2.
ionic— foot, 734 ; rhythm, 736; rhythms,
815-819 ; substitutions for, 815.
ipse — decl. of, 103,3 and N.; ipsus, zft.s.2;
syntax of, 311; et ipse, ib. 1.B.2; em-
phasises reflexive, ib. 2 ; used indeclin-
ably, 16. 2,K.; in O. O., 660,5.
Ira— of Moving Cause, 408.N-2; incendor
Ira with Inf., 633.B.1.
Irascl— with Dat., 346.B.2.
Ire— 169,2; omission of, 209.N.5; with
Dat., 358.N.2; with Sup., 435.N.1; with
Infitias, etc., 333, 2,B.
is — decl. of, 103,1 and N.; strengthened by
quidam, 307, K.4 ; taken up by ille, ib.
N.4; two forms with different ante-
cedent, ib. N.3; syntax of, 308; = tails,
ib. B.I ; with et, atque, que, ib. B.2 ; for
reflexive, 309.N.1; id temporis, aeta-
tis, 336.N.2; eo as coordinating conj.,
503; ide5, idcirco, ib.; with qul and
Subjv., 631,1; with ut, »• B.I, 557.B.;
in 6. O., 660, 2.
islands— in Local Ace., 337 ; with in, ib.
B.I and N.3; prep, omitted with Large
Islands, id. N.I.
iste — decl. of, 104,11. and NN.; syntax of,
306 ; contemptuous character of, ib. N. ;
strengthened by quidem, 307.B.4; in
6. O., 660,3.
ita— with ut, *82,4; correlative of si,
_ 590.N.1 ; yes, 471,a,l.
Italicus Numerus—756.
itaque— usage of, 500 ; position of, ib. B.;
with ergo, 502.N.3.
iter — decl. of, 44,5.
iterative action— 566, 567 ; Subjv. in, ib.
N. ; with cum, 584 ; in Relative Sen-
tences, 623.
Ithyphallic — verse, 774.
iubSre— with two Aces., 341, N. 2 ; with
Ace. and Dat., 346.N.3; constr. after,
423, N. 6 ; with Ace. and Inf., 528 and N.I;
with Inf., 423.2.N.2, 632,NN.1,2; with
Subjv., 546,8.2 ; iussii, defective, 68,5;
iussu as Abl. of Cause, 408.N.1.
iudicare— with inf., 423,2,u.2.
[iuger]— decl. of, 68,7.
iunctns— with Dat., etc., 359.N.3.
lUS-with Inf., 422.N.2, 428.N.2 ; with
respondere, 333,2, B. ; in phrases with
Ut, 546.N.2; iure, 399.N.1; iure in Abl.
of Respect, 397.
iiisto— as Abl. of Respect, 398.N.1.
iuvare— with Ace., 346.N.3.
iuvenis— Comp. of, 87,9-
iuxta— as adv., 415 ; as prep., 416,15.
Judgment— vbs. of, with Abl. of Standard,
402.
K— sounds of, 1,8.1 ; name of, ib. N.
knowledge — adjs. of, in pred. attrib., 325,
B.6 ; adjs. of, with Gen., 374.
Labials — 6,1 ; suffixes with, 187.
laborem— with impertireand Dat. Ger.,
429,1.
laborare— with Inf., 423.2.N.2 ; with ut,
546,^.1.
lac— decl. of, 53,8; 68,12.
laedere— with ACC., 346.N.3.
laetarl— with Ace. and Inf., 533,it.l.
lamentarl — with Ace. and Inf., 533.B.1.
largiri— with ut, 553,2.
later — defective, 70,D.
latitudine — with Ace. of Extent, 335, K.I.
latus— with Ace. of Extent, 335.B.1.
laurus— heteroclite, 68,5.
leaving — vbs. of, with Ace. Ger., 430.
lectus— heteroclite, 68,5.
length — by nature, 12,1, and B.; by posi-
tion, ib. 2 ; representation of long vow-
els, ib. N.
lengthening — compensatory, 9,6,a.
letters — tenses in, 252; advs. in, ib.; dated
from a place, 391, R. 3.
letting— vbs. of, with Ace. Ger., 430-
levare— with Abl., 390,2,N.2.
Igx— in .phrases with ut, 546.NN.1 and 2 ;
I6ge, 397 and N.I, 399.N.1.
liberalis— with Gen., 374.N.1.
liberate— with Abl., 390,2,N.2.
-libet— added to rels., 111,3 ; exact use
of libuerit, 244.K.3 ; libgns, in pred.
attrib., 325.B.6; with Dat., 346.B.2.
llCSre— exact use of Fut. Pf., 24i,K.3; with
Dat., 346.B.2 ; with Gen., 379; licet,
although, 603-607; with quamvls, ib. N.
2; with Indie., ib. N.3.
likeness— suffixes for, 182,4.
GENERAL INDEX.
523
likeness— adjs. of, with Dat., 349 ; with
atque(ac), 643.
linguals— 6,1,N.
linter— decl. of, 44,2, 45,R.l.
liquids— 6,2,A ; 3d Decl. steins in, 39-46 ;
suffixes with, 189.
litare— with Abl. of Means, 401.N.4.
litotes— 644.N.1, 700.
lltterae— in phrases with ut, 646.N.2.
living — vbs. of, with Abl.,401,N.l.
Local Dative — 358.
locality— suffixes for, 181,5, 182,9.
locare— with Gen., 379; within and Abl.,
386.K.1 ; with Ace. Gen., 430.
LOCATIVE— 23,N. ; of 1st Decl., 29,fi.2; of 2d
Decl., 33,KK.3,5 ; 3d Decl., 37,6 ; forms
advs., 91,3; syntax of, 411; in 3d Decl.,
ib. B.I ; other Locs., ib. B.2 ; app. to, in
Abl., t'6. K.3 ; doml, with poss. pron.,
ib. B.4.
locus-67,2 ; in Ioc5 habere, 340.K.1 ;
Abl. without in, 385,N.l.
logacadic rhythms— 790-805.
LOGICAL CONDITION— 595 ; with Subjv. by
Attraction, ib. B,2; with Ideal 2d Person,
t'6. a.3; slve— slve, ib. s.4; si quidem,
ib. K.5 ; si modo, v5ro, tamen, »6. a.6;
tenses in, ib. N.2 ; in 6. O., 657, 595,
B.I.
longinquus— Comp. of, 87,9.
longitudine— with Ace. of Extent, 335,
B.I.
longum— with est for Subjv., 254.K.1;
longS strengthens Comp. or Superla-
lative, 301, 303 ; with Ace., 335.R.1.
loqul — with Ace. and Inf., 527,B.2 ; with
Indie, question, 467.N.
lubldo — in phrases with Inf., 422.N.2.
ludos facere— with ACC., 342.
lugere— with Inf., 533, B.I.
lux— 70,D ; in Abl. of Time, 393,B.5.
M— final omitted, 27.N.
macte— 85,c, 325.B.1.
maer6re— with Inf., 533.B.1.
magnificus— Comp. of, 87,4.
magnitudine— with Ace. of Extent, 335,
B.I.
magnus — comparison of, 90 ; constr.
with maior, 296.R.5 ; magis, in com-
parison of Qualities, 299 ; magnl, as
Gen. of Price, 380,1 ; maius, with Inf.,
422.N.3 ; maximi, as Gen. of Price, 380,
1 ; non magis quam, 644,N.l.
making— vbs. of, with two Norns., 206;
with two Aces., 340.
maledlcere— with Dat., 346.B.2.
maledicus— Comp. of, 87,4.
malle— conj. of, 174 and N.3; malueram,
could have preferred, 254.N.1 ; malim,
mallem, as Potential, 257,2, 258.N.1 ;
in Unreal Wish, 261,B. ; with Abl., 296,
N.I ; with Abl. of Measure, 403.N.1 ;
with Inf. or ut, 423.2.N.2, 638 and N.3,
546,N.l.
malus— comparison of, 90; male as neg.,
439.N.2.
manare — with Abl. of Means, 401.N.5.
mandate— with ut, 546.N.1.
mane"re— as copulative vb., 206.N.1 ; with
Abl., 401.N.6.
mani— as Loc., 411,N.l.
manifSstus— with Gen., 374.N.2 ; with
Inf., 421,N.l,c.
Manner — Abl. of, 399 and NN.
manus inicere— with ACC., 342.
mare— in Abl. without in, 385.N.1.
margarita — heteroclite, 68,1.
materia — heteroclite, 68,2.
Material — Abl. of, 396; indicated by adj.,
ib. ; suffixes for, 182,4.
maturate— with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
maturus — Comp. of, 87,l,B.2.
m&tutlnus— in pred. Attr., 325,R.6.
Means— Abl. of, 401, and BB..NN.; suffixes
for, 181,6.
measure — vbs. of, take Abl., 402.
Measure — Abl. of, 402; of Difference, 403;
Abl. of, with vbs. involving Difference,
ib. N.I; with ante and post, t'6. N.4.
medSri— with Dat., 346.B.2 and N.4.
medioximus— 87,9,N.
meditari— with inf., 423.2.N.2.
meditative verbs — formation, 191,5.
medium— suffixes for, 182,6.
medius— in pred. attrib., 325.R.6 ; used
partitively, 291.B.2 ; Abl. used without
in, 388.
memini — 175,5,6; First Impv. wanting,
267, B.; with Pr. Inf., 281.2.N.; with Ace.,
376.B.2 ; with Inf., 423.2.N.2, 627.R.2 ;
with cum and Indie., 580,B.2.
memoratii— as Abl. Sup., 436,N.
memoria teneS— with Pr. inf., 281,2,N.
mendum— heteroclite, 68,3.
mSns— in phrases with ut, 557, B.; in
mentem venire, with Gen., 376,R.3;
in mentem venire, with inf., 422.N.5.
524
GENERAL INDEX.
meritus— Comp. of, 87,9 ; merito as Abi.
of Manner, 399,u.l.
-met — added to personal pron., 102.N.2;
to ipse, 103.3.N.5.
metaplasts — 68.
metathesis — of consonants, 9,8.
metre— 730; unit of, 731.
metuere— with Dat., 346, N. 2 ; with ut,
ne, or Inf., 550 and N.I ; with Inf., 423,
2.N.2.
metUS— with Inf., 550.N.5.
meus— 73.R-, 76 ; Voc. of, 100.R-1: early
forms of, ifc.N.2; synizesis in, ib.x.3, 727,
N. ; mea mini, 309,N.2; mel with Gen.
Ger., 428,R.l; with ut, 657.B.
middle voice — 218, B., 218; with Ace. of
Respect, 338.N.2.
militia— in Abl. of Time, 393, B. 5; inLoc.,
411.B.2.
mllle— a subst. in PI., 95.B.3 ; inscrip-
tioua) forma of, t6.K.4 ; mllia, with
masc. vb., 211,B.l,Ex.6 ; use of, in Sg.
and PL, 293 ; as eubst. with Part. Gen.,
293,N. ; mllia for distributive, 295.N.
minari, mmitarl— with Dat., 346, R. 2;
with Inf.,527,B.2.
minor — quam omitted with, 296, R.I ;
with vbs. of Rating and Buying, 380,1;
minoris, minimi, as Gen. of Price, ffi.;
minus, n°> 471,6,1; minimS, n», ib.;
sin minus, 592 ; si minus, '&. B. ; non
minus quam, 644.N.1.
mirarl— with Inf., 423,2,N.2, 533,8.1; with
quod, 642 ; with si, ib. N.I.
mlrum— with factum and nl, quantum,
quln, 209.N.2, 467.N. ; with quod, 642;
with si, 542.N.1; with nl, ib. N.2 ; with
Inf.. 422.N.3 ; with quam and Indie.,
467.N.; with ut, 553,4.
mlscere— S§, with Dat., 346.N.6; with
Dat. and Ace., or Ace. and Abl.,348,B.l.
miserarl— with Ace., 377.N.2.
miserere— with Gen., 377.N.1 ; miseret,
with Gen., 377: misereor, with Gen.,
ib. ; misergSCO, with Gen., ib. N.I.
mittere— mitte, with inf. for impv.,
271,2,N.2; \vithlnf., 422.N.3; with quod,
525,l,N.l ; followed by Irnpf. Indie, to
give Design, 630.N.2 ; missu, of Moving
Cause, 408.N-1.
mixed class of Verbs— 133, vii.
moderari— with Dat., 346, R. 2 and N.2.
modo— strengthens Impv., 269 ; modo—
mode, 482,1 ; contrasted with tum,
vicissim, 482,1, N.2; n5n modo— sed
etiam, 482,5 : non modo non, sed
n§ — quidem, #>• B.1 : provided only,
573 ; modo ne, it>. N.S.
molirl— with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
monere— with Gen. or Ace., 376 and B.I:
with Inf., 423,2,N.2 ; with ut, 546.N.1.
mood— 112,4, 253; Indie., 254: Subjv..
255-265; Impv., 266-275 ; Inf., 279-281;
attraction of ,508,4 ; in Temporal Clauses,
560 : in Relative Sentences, 624-635; in
Comparative Sentences, 639 ; in O. O.,
650-652.
morari— with ne, 548. N. 1.
morigerari— with Dat., 346,8.2.
mos— (moris) with Inf., 422.NN.2 and 5 ;
with ut, 557.B.; moribus, 399.N.1.
motion — vb. of, with Inf., 421,N.l,a; vb. of,
with Sup., 435 ; vb. of, with Fut. part.,
438.N-; vb. of, with quod, 525,1,N.G; end
of, conceived as Rest, 412,8.1.
mov6re— syncope in Pf., 131,3; with
Abl. of Separation, 390, N.I ; with ut,
553,2: motus, of Moving Cause, 408.N.2.
Mulciber— heteroelite, 68,4.
multare— with Abl., 378.B.3.
multitude — substs. of, with PL, 211, R.I,
Ex.o.
multitude"— with PL vb., 211,B.l,Ex.a.
multum — for Abl. of Measure, 403, N.2;
very, 439,N.3 ; multO with Comp., 301 ;
with Superl., 303.
munus— with Inf., 422.N.2 ; with ut, 546,
N.2.
mutare— with Abl., 404.N.1.
mutes— 6,2,B.
miituo— °f reciprocal action, 221.B.2.
myrtus— heteroelite, 68,5.
— usage of, 498 and NN. ; position of,
i6., N.I ; asseverative, ib. N.2 ; yes for,
471.B.
naming— vbs. of, with two Aces., 340.
namque— 498; position of, ib. N.I.
narrare— with inf., 527,8.2.
nasals— 6,2. A.: nasal class of vbs., 133,iv.
nascl— with two Noms., 206 ; natus,
constr. of, 296.R.5; with Ace., 336.R.4:
with Abl. of Origin, 395.NN.1.3 ; natti
in Abl. Sup., 436.N.
natura— in phrases with ut, 657.B.
naucum — defective, 70, B.; nauci, as
Gen. of Price, 380,1-
nS— neg. of Opt. Subjv., 260; of Irupv.,
GENERAL INDEX.
525
270; continued by usque, 260; by
ngve, 270, 444,2 ; with Pf. Subjv., 270,
R.2; syntax of, 441, 444; = non, 444,1,
N.2; n6— quidem, ib. l,N.2, 445,448,N.2,
482,5 and ii.l ; in Final Sentences, 543,
4 ; ut ng, 545.R.1; quo n6, ib.; paren-
thetical, ib. R.3 ; after vbs. of Hinder-
ing, 548 ; after vbs. of Fear, 550 ; n5
non, ib- N.I ; with dum, 573 ; as Con-
cessive. 608.
ne— added to hie, 104,1. N.3 ; to iste, ib.
2,N.3; to ille, 103,3, N.4; as interroga-
tive, 454; asseverative, ib. N.2; added
to interrogatives, ib. N.3 ; = nonne, ib.
N.5; added to num,456,N.; strengthens
an, 457,1,N.2 ; to introduce double
questions, 458; necne or annon,459:
to introduce second member of an indi-
rect question, 460,2.
nearness — adjs. of, with Dat., 359.
nec = non, 442.N.3 ; see neque.
necessarium— with ut, 553,4.
necesse—85,C.; with est instead of Subjv.,
254. K.I; with Inf., 538; with ut omit-
ted, 638.B.2, 553,4,R.l ; with pred. at-
tracted, 538.B.3; with ut, 563,4; with
habeo and Inf., 423.2.N.2,
necessity — adjs. of, with Inf., 421,N.l,c ;
expressed by Indie., 254.K.1, 255, u.
ngdum— 482,5,B.2.
nefas— 70,B. ; with Inf., 428.N.2; with
Abl. Sup., 436.N.2; with Inf., 422.N.2.
negare — use of, 444,1, N.2; continued by
neque— neque, 445,N. ; = dlcS non,
447; with Inf., 527,a.2.
negative — of Potential, 257; of Opt., 260;
of Irnpv., 270; non with Opt., 260;
n5n with Impv., 270.R.1 ; noli with
Inf., 270.B.2 ; advs., 441-449 ; non, 442 ;
baud, 443; nec = non, 442.N.3; ng,
444 ; subdivision of, 445 ; combinations,
446 ; resolution of, ib. N.2 ; positive
supplied from, 447.R.; position of, 448,
449 ; two, 449 ; nec non for et, ib. R.3 ;
in Copulative Sentences, 480 ; in Final
and Consecutive Sentences, 543,4.
negotium — in phrases with ut, 546. N-2;
with Inf., 422.N.5.
ngmS— decl. of, 70,D. ; and ntillus, 108 ;
with PI. vb., 211,K.l,Ex.a; with Impv.
Subjv., 270,N.; and quisquam, 317,2;
as adj., ib.; et neinO, ib. 2.N.1 ;
strengthened by unus ; - ngquis,446,
H.3.
nequam — 85,0.; comparison of, 90.
neque — with Opt. Subjv. for n8, 260; adds
Impv., 270.N.; neque— neque with PL,
285, N.I; subdivides a general neg., or
nego, 445 and N.I ; nec non, 449.R 3 ;
for et non, 480 and B.I; for nec tamen,
ib. B.3 ; for n8— quidem, ib. N.I ; com-
pared with nec, ib. N.2 ; for non, ib. N.
4; for ngve, 543.N.3.
nequlre— conj. of, 170,6 ; nequmont,
133,iv.N.2: with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
Ngrig-decL of, 41,4.
nescio— an, 457,2 ; quis, 467.B.1 ; quo-
modo, i6.N.; with Inf., 423,2,N.2,527,R.l.
neu, ngve— 444,2 ; adds Final Clause,
543,4; neque instead, ib. N.3.
neuter— decl. of, 76, 108 ; neutiquam,
442.N.2.
neuter — adj. with masc. subj., 211.B.4;
demonstrative when subst. is expected,
ib. N.3; Sg. sums up PL, ib.; PL pred.
to two ferns., 286,3 ; in app. to persons,
321,N.2 ; pron. and adj. in Cognate Ace.,
333,1, 341.N.2 ; proii. and adj. with Part.
Gen., 369 ; pron. and adj. not attracted
toGer.,427,N.3,
ngve— see neu.
ni — with mirum, 209.N.2 ; range of, 591,
N.2.
nihil — for nullus, 108 ; with Impv.
Subjv., 270.N.; neg. of quisquam, 317,
2; no, 471,6,1 ; nihill as Gen. of Price,
380,1; for non, 442.N.2.
nihilominus— 490,K.
nimis— with quam and Indie., 467.N.
nimium— with quantum, 209.N.2, 467.N.;
very, 439.N.3; nimio as Abl. of Stan-
dard, 403,N.3.
nisi— with quod, 525,2,N.2, 591,6,R.3; with
ut,557,N.2, 591,5,B.4; and si non, 591,6;
but, except, ib. R.2 ; si, ib. ; nisi forte,
vgro, ib. R.4 ; nisi tamen, ib. N.I ; in
asseverations, 591,6,2 ; with Inf., 635,
N.2; with participle, 667.N.
nltl-with Abl., 401.N.6 ; with Inf., 423,2,
N.2; with ut, 546.N.1.
nix-decl. of, 52,7.
no — how translated, 470,6 and c.
nocere— with Dat., 346.
nolle— conj. of, 174; exact use of n51ue-
rit, 244, B.3; nolim, nollem, as Poten-
tial, 257,2, 258; not in Unreal Wish, 261,
R-; noli, with Inf. for Impv., 270,N.2,
271,2 ; nolim, with Subjv. for Impv.,
526
GENERAL IHDEX.
271.2.N.2 : with Pf. Inf. pass., 280,2,<e.N.;
nolens, in pred. app., 325.R.6 : with
Inf., 423,2,N.2 : with nt, 546.N.1 ; with
Inf. or ut, 538 and N.3.
nomen — with esse and Cat., 349, K. 5 ;
with Appositional Gen., 361,1 ; with
Gen. of Charge, 378.R.2.
nominarl — with two Noms., 206.
NOMINATIVE — defined, 23,1; of 1st Decl.,
29 and N.I; of 2d Decl., 31,33,N.4; of 3d
Decl., 36,1 and 2, 38,1, 57.B.4; of Greek
substantives, 68.N.4; of adjs., 75.N.4, 79,
N.I; of Participles, 89.B.2; for Voc., 201,
K.2 ; syntax of, 203; two Noms., 206;
with Inf. after copulative vb., ib. B.3;
for Voc. in app., 321. N.I ; with 5 and
gn, or ecce, 343.1,N.l ; with Inf. by
attraction, 527, N. 2; after pass. vbs. of
Saying and Thinking, 628 ; nominativus
pendens, 627.N.2.
non— neg. of Potential, 257; neg. of Wish,
260; with Impv., 270.B.1; syntax of, 441,
442 ; with ullus for nflllus, 446.N.2 ;
non possum non, 449.R.1 ; nee non =
et, ib. R-3; no, 471,6,1 ; nSn modo— sed
etiam, 482,5 and N.I ; non modo— sed
nS— quidem, ib. B. 1 ; for n6, 573.N.2.
nSnne— syntax of, 455 ; with indirect
question, 460,1, N.2 ; with rhetorical
question, 464,R.
nonnullus— 108.
noscere— syncope in Pf., 131,3; novl,
nostri— with Gen. Ger., 428.R.1.
noun — denned, 16 ; inflection of, 17 ; and
pronoun, 16.N.2.
nourishing — vbs. of, with Abl., 401, N.I.
novas— Comp. of, 87,9; with Inf., 422, N.
3 ; with ut, 553,4.
nOX— decl. of, 53,8 ; with Abl. of Time,
393.K.5.
nubere— with Dat., 346.R.2 and N.4.
niidus— with Gen., 374.N.8.
ntillus— decl. of, 76,90; and nSmo, 108;
with Impv. Subjv., 270, N. ; and ullus,
317,2; for non, ib. N.2.
mini — 456: with ne and nam, #>• N. ; in
indirect questions, 460, 1 ,o; in rhetorical
questions, 464, R.
number — Sg. and PL, 22; Dual, ib. B. and
112,1; concord of, 285 and NN. ; violation
of Concord in app., 321.R.1 ; substs. of,
with Gen., 368 ; definite numbers in
Abl. of Time, 393.B.2.
numerals— cardinals, 94: ordinals, 95 and
294: cpd., 96: omission of cent5na
milia, ib. 6 ; insertion of et, ib. 5; frac-
tions, ib. 7; signs, 96,ii.; distributives,
97 and 295; multiplicatives, 97 ; propor-
tionals, 97; advs., 98 ; duo, ambo, uter-
que, 292; mllle, 293: singull, 295:
distributives for cardinals, ib. N. ; ali-
quis with, 314.R.2 ; quisque with, 318,
2 ; with Part. Gen., 370.
numero— as adv., 399.N.1 ; (in) numerS
habere, 340.B.1.
nunc— strengthens etiam, 478.N.1 ; nunc
— nunc, 482,1 and N.I.
nuntiare— with Inf., 527.B.2; with Norn,
and Inf., 528.N.1.
nuperum — defective, 85,1.
0— sound of, 3; weakening of, 8,1; as
interjection, 201.R.2, 343.N.1; Q si in
Wishes, 261; length of final, 707,5.
ob — in composition, 9,4; vbs. cpd. with,
take Ace. or Dat., 331,347 ; to give the
Cause, 408.N.3; as prep., 416,16; with
Ace. Ger., 428.R.2, 432 audu.l.
Obesse— with Dat., 346.R.2, 347.R.2; with
Inf., 422.N.4.
obicere — with Ace. Ger., 430.N.1.
object — direct, becomes subj. of pass.,
216; indirect retained in pass., 217;
direct, 330; inner, 330,332,333; outer,
338 ; indirect, 344 ; of Ger., 427,2; after
Dat. Ger., 429.N.2 ; after Ace. Sup., 435,
N.3; after Abl. Sup., 436.
OBJECT SENTENCES— 523-537 ; with quod,
524,525 ; with Ace. and Inf., 526,527 ;
with Nom. and Inf., 528; alter vbs. of
Will and Desire, 632; after vbs. of Emo-
tion, 533 ; in exclamations, 534; as subj.,
635; in part., 536, 537; in O. O., 655.
Objective Genitive — 363; of pers. pron.,
364.N.2.
obligate— with g@ and Gen. of Charge,
378,R.l.
obligation— expressed by Indie., 254. R.I,
255.B.
oboedire— with Dat., 346.R.2.
obrSpere— with Dat., 347.R.2.
obsaturare— with Gen., 383,1, N.2.
obsecro — strengthens Impv., 269 ; with-
out Inf., 546.N.3; with nt, 546.N.1.
obsequi— with Dat., 346.R.2.
obsistere — with Dat., 347.R-2 ; with nS,
548.N.1 ; with quin, 555,1.
GENEBAL INDEX.
527
obstare— with Dat., 347.B.2 ; with nS,
548.N.1 : with quln, 555,1.
obstrepere— with Dat., 347.R.2.
obtemperare— with Dat., 346.R.2.
obtSstor— with Inf., 546.N.3.
obtingere— with Dat., 347.B.2.
obtrectare— with Dat., 346.B.2 andN.2.
obvenire— with Dat., 347.R.2.
obversarl— with Dat., 347.R.2.
occurrere— with Dat., 347, R. 2.
occursare — with Dat., 347. n- 2.
Ocior— 87,7.
5dl— conjugation of, 175,5,c ; odi5 6886 as
pass, of, if). N.
office— suffixes for, 181,10.
officere— with Dat., 346.R.2.
officium — in phrases with Inf., 422.N.2;
with ut, 546.N.2.
Olle-for ille, 104.3.N.1.
omission— of vowels, 8,2, 701,B.2,a ; of
consonants, 9,6; of subj., 207; of copula,
209; of other vbs., ib. Tf.5; of ease i"
Pf. Inf. pass., 280,2, a,R.2 and c ; of con-
junction, 474,N., 481.483.N., 492,N. ; of
non, 482,5,R.l ; of vb. of Saying, 545.R.3;
of vb. with sin, 592,E.; of si, 598; of vb.
of Protasis, 599; of Protasis, 600; of
Apodosis, 601 ; of vb. after quasi and
tamquam, 602.N.1 ; of vb. of compara-
tive clause, 640.
omittere— with quod, 525,1, N.I ; with
Inf., 423,2,N.2; omitte, with Inf. for
Impv., 271,2,N.2.
omitting — vbs. of, with quod, 555,1; vbs.
of, with Inf., 423,2.
omnlno— yes, 471,a,l.
omnis— in Abl., without in, 388 ; omnia,
as Ace. of Kespect, 338,2.
onus— with Inf., 422.N.2.
onustus— with Gen., 374.N.1 ; with Abl.,
405.N.3.
operam — in phrases with Dat. Ger., 429,
1 and N.I ; with Inf., 422.N.5 ; with ut,
546,NN.l and 2.
Oplnio— in phrases with Inf., 527, E.2;
with ut, 557, is.; opinione as Abl. of
Eespect, 398, N.I.
opitularl— with Dat., 346.R.2.
oportet— Indie, for Subjv., 254,i;.l ; with
Pf. part, pass., 280.2,&,H.2; with Inf. or
Subjv., 635,R.2; with ut, 553,4,R.l.
OppidO— very, 439.N.3; with quantum,
Oppidnm— has pred. adj. in agreement,
211.R.6; requires prep., 337.R.1.; with
Epexegetical Gen., 336.N.1; in app. tp
Town in Abl., 356,R.l, 391.U.1 ; in app.
toLoc., 411.R.3.
tops]— defective, 70.D.
optare— with Inf., 423,2,N.2 ; with ut, ib.
N.4,546,N.l ; optat5, as Abl. of Manner,
399, N.I.
OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE — 260-265 ; in
Wishes, 260 ; particles with, 261 ; in
Asseverations, 262 ; as Impv. , 263 ; as
concessive, 264; in Deliberative Ques-
tions, 265.
Optimum— with Inf., 422.N.3.
opus— with Abl., 406 ; with Gen., ib. N.3 ;
with Nom., ib. N.4 ; with part., 437.N.2;
with Inf., 422.N.2 ; with ut, 557, R. ; With
Nom. and Inf., 628.N.2.
Srare— with two Aces., 339 and N.I; with
Inf., 546.N.3 ; with ut, ib. N.I.
OBATIO OBLIQUA— 608,2; partial, t'6.3, ibA;
sequence in, 516; in Relative Sentences,
625,R., 628,R., 629.R., 648,649 ; comes in
without notice, 649.N.2; shift to, ib. N.3;
moods in, 650-652 ; interrogative in,
651 ; Impv. in, 652 ; tenses in, 653-655 ;
in Causal Sentences, 655 ; Conditional
Sentences in, 656-659; Logical, 595,B.l,
657 ; Ideal, 596,R.5,658 ; Unreal, 597.R.4,
659; pronouns in, 660 ; by Attraction,
508,4,662; partial, 508,3,663; Represen-
tation, 654 and N.
Orbus— with Abl., 405.N.3.
order — adjs. of, in pred. attrib., 326.R.6.
ordinals— 94; early forms, 95.N.5; alter
lor secundus, 96,5; in dates, 294; for
cardinals, ib. and 336,R.l; with quis-
que,#>- N., 318,2; position of, 676.B.2.
ordine — as Abl. of Manner, 399, N.I.
Origin — Abl. of, 395 ; preps, with Abl. of,
ib. NN.2 and 3 ; suffixes of, 182,7.
or Ir 1—166,169,1 ; ortus, with Abl. of
Origin, 395.N.1.
oriundus— with Abl. of Origin, 395.N.1.
OS — bone, decl. of, 48.R. ; mouth, defective,
70,D.
OStendere— with Ace. and Inf., 527.R.2.
OStrea — heteroclite, 68,1.
overlapping action — 662,571,N.l.
oxymoron— 694.
Paene— with Indie, in Apod, of Unreal
Condition, 597.R.3 ; position of, 677.R.1.
paenitet — with Gen., 377 ; with neut.
528
GENERAL INDEX.
subj., ib. R.2 ; with Inf., 422,N.4 ; with
. quod, 542.
palam— as prep., 417,8.
palatals — vowels, 2; consonants, 6,1,N.
palumbes— heteroclite, 68,7.
panis— heteroclite, 68,12.
par — with est instead of Subjv., 254.R.1;
with Gen. or Dat, 359.R.1; with Dat.
Ger., 429.N.1.
parare— with Inf., 423.2.N.2; paratus,
with Inf., 421,N.l,c.
parataxis — 472.
parcere— with Dat., 346.R.2; parce, with
Inf. for Impv., 271,2,N.2.
parenthetical nt and H8 — 645.B.3.
pargre— with Dat., 346.E.2.
pariter— pariter, 482,3.
pars— with PI. vb., 211,B.l,Ex.a ; in Abl.
without in, 385.N.1; tuam partem,
334, B.2.
Part Affected— in Ace., 338,1.
partial obliquity— 508,3, 663.
particeps— with Gen., 374.N.2.
participation — adjs. of, with Gen., 374.
PARTICIPIAL SENTENCES — 664-670 ! to 6X-
press Time, 665; Cause, 666; Condition
and Concession, 667 ; relative clauses.
668 ; Future similarly used, 669,670.
PARTICIPLE— decl. of, 80,82; Abl. of, 83;
Norn, and Ace. PI. of, ib. N.I ; compar-
ison of, 88,89 ; Abl. of Cpmp., ib. B.I ;
Norn. PI. of, ifc.B.2 ; Gen. PI. of, ib. B.3;
denned, 112,5; formation of, 115,3;
early forms of, 130,7; Pf. pass., 135,1.;
Fut. Act., ib. II.; Pf. pass, of Deponents
as act., 167.N.1; Pf. pass, of intrans.
vbs. used as act., 220, N.I; Pf. with
habeSand teneo, 238; Fut. periphras-
tic, 247; Pr. periphrastic with esse, ib.
N.2; Pf. with ful, 250; as adj., ib. N.2;
as pred., 261, K.I ; usage of Pr. and Pf.,
282 ; usage of Fut. act., 283 : concord
with two subjs. in Abl. Abs., 285.N.3;
Pr. with Gen., 375; contrasted with adj.,
ib. N.I; Comp. of, with Gen., ib. N.2 ; of
Birth with Abl., 396; Pf. pass, with
Opus and usus, 406; in Abl. Abs., 409,
410, and NN.; Pf. pass, parallel with
Ger., 426.N.2, 427.N.1 ; as subst., 437;
Fut. as subst., ib- N.I ; as adj., 438 ;
Fut. as adj., ib. N.I; parallel with rel.
and Subjv., ib. B.; with interrog., 469 ;
sequence after, 518; after vbs. of Percep-
tion, etc., 527,N. 1,636; after vbs. of
Causation, etc.. 537; equiv. to cum, 686,
B.; for Prot., 593,2 ; for Prot. in Com-
parative Sentence, 602, N. 3; Concessive,
609 ; for rel., 637.
particles — copulative, 474 ; adversative,
483 ; disjunctive, 492: causal, 498 ; illa-
tive, 499; position of, 679.
partitive apposition— 322.
Partitive Genitive — 367-372; with substs.
of Quantity, etc., 368; with iieut. Sg.,
369: witli numerals, 370; with pronouns,
371 ; with comparatives and superla-
tives, 372 ; preps, instead, ib. B.2 ; with
uterque, 371.B.1 ; extensions of, 372,
NN. : contrasted with Gen. of Character-
istic, 369.N.1.
parts of speech — 16.
parvus— Comp. of, 90 ; in Gen. of Price,
380,1.
passive — voice, 112,2 ; vbs. with two
Noms., 206; vb. agrees with pred., 211,
B.1, Ex. 6 ; denned, 214 ; Pf. with Dat.
of Agent, 215,1 ; as reflexive, 218 ; of
something endured, 219 ; periphrastic
forms of, 248-251; with Ace. of Respect,
338.N.2 ; impersonal, 346.R.1.
patl— with ut, 553,2 ; with Inf., tfc.N.
patronymics — 182,11.
paulo, paulum— with ante and post,
403.N.4.&.
pause— in Verse, 742.
pavSre — constr. of, 550 and N.I.
pax— decl. of, 70.D ; in Abl. of Time, 393,
B.5, 394. R.I.
peculiaris— with Gen. or Dat., 359, B.I.
pecus— heteroclite, 68,12.
pellere— with Abl. of Separation, 390,
N.I.
pendSre— with Gen., 379.
penes— position of, 413.B.1 ; use of, as
prep., 416,17.
pentameter— elegiac, 785; Pf. Inf. in, 280,
2,6,N.2; position of words in, 683.
penult — 11.
penus— heteroclite, 68,11.
per — vbs. cpd. with take Ace., 331 : with
Ace. of Extent, 335, 336 ; to express
Time Within Which, ib. B.2, 393.R.1 ;
here and there in, 386.R.3; for Abl. of
Manner, 399.N.1; with Person Through
Whom, 401 ; position of, 413.R.1, and N.
2 ; use as prep., 416,18,
perceiving — vbs. of, with Object Clause,
523 ; with Ace. and Inf., 526, 527 ; with
GENEKAL INDEX.
529
Norn., 528; with part., 627,N.l, 536;
Nom. after, 536.N.2.
percontarl— with two Aces., 339 and N.I.
perdius— defective, 85,2.
PERFECT— defined, 112,3 ; System, 114,2
and 3,& ; formation of, 114, 115, 121,2 ;
syncopated forms of, 131, 1-3 ; early
forms of, 131,4 ; Stem, 134 ; part, pass.,
135.1. ; part, as subst, 167.N.1 ; pass,
with Dat. of Agent, 215,1; part, used as
act., 220, N.I ; defined, 223 ; Historical,
225 ; Pure and Historical, 235 ; force of,
236 ; trans, by Eng. Pr., ib. K. ; with
Aor. force, ib. ; Gnomic, ib. N. ; for Fut.
Pf.,237; part, with habeS and teneo,
238 ; pass, with ful, 250 ; Subjv. as
Potential, 257,2 and N.I ; in wishes,
260; Subjv. as Impv., 263,2,6, 270.R.2;
tense relations in Subjv., 277 ; Inf.
as subj. or obj., 280,2 ; after decuit,
ib. a, B. 1 ; Emotional, ib. ; after
oportuit, ib. B.2; after velle, 280,
2,6 and N.I; after posse, ib. ; after
debeo, ib. N.3 ; after vbs. of Will and
Desire, 280,2,c ; use of part., 282 and
N.; part, as subj., 437,N.l ; Sequence
after, 611,RB.3,4 ; Subjv. in Final
Sentences, 512.N.1 ; in Consecutive Sen-
tences, 513 and NN. ; Inf., 630; Inf. in
O.O., 659.N.
perficere— with ut, 553,1.
pergere— with Inf., 423,2,N.2.
perh.ib8re — as copulative vb., 206,
N.I ; with Nom. and Inf., 628 and
N.I.
period— Eesponsive and Apodotic, 685 ;
forms distinguished by Nagelsbach,
686 ; Historical and Oratorical, 687.
periphrasis— for Impv., 271 ; for Fut.
periphrastic, 515.R.2 ; for Fut., 531 and
K.I ; for Apod, in Unreal Condition,
897, n.5.
PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION — 129 ; act.,
247 ; pass., 251 ; with fin, 247.K.1; with
forem, i\ N.I ; Pr. part, with esse, fl>.
N.2; with futurum esse ut, 248 ; with
in eo est,249 ; with posse, velle, 248,
B.; Pf. part, with sum and ful, 250 and
B.I ; with forem for essem, ib. N.2 ;
withGer., 251 ; Fut. act., 283.
perire— pass, of perdere, 169,2,K.i.
perltUS— with Gen., 374,N.4.
permanere— with two Noms., 206.N.1.
permittere— used personally in pass.,
34
217,N.2 ; with Inf., 423.2.N.2, 632.N.1
553,2,N.; with ut, 553,2.
permitting — vbs. of, with Consecutive
Clause, 553,2.
pernox — defective, 85,2.
perperum— defective, 85,1.
perpetuus — and perpes, 84,1 ; per-
petuum, as adv. Ace., 336.N.1.
perquam— with indie., 467.N.
persequens— with Gen., 375.N.2.
perseverare— with inf., 423.2.N.2.
persons— in conjugation of vb., 112,1 ;
concord of, 287 ; order of, ib. R.
personal endings— 114.
personal pronouns — 304 ; omitted, ib. 1 ;
Gen. of,as objective, ib. 2, 364,N.2; poss.
for, ib. 2.N.2; Gen. of, as Partitive, ib. 3;
for poss., ib. 3.N.1 ; circumlocution for
third personal pronoun, ib. 3,N.2.
perspicere— with Ace. and Inf., 527.B.1.
perstare— with Inf., 423,2,N.2.
persuadere— used personally in pass..
217.N.1; with Dat., 346.R.2, and NN.2,4 ;
with Inf., 423,2,N.2, 527.R.2, 646,B.l ;
with ut, 646,N.l.
pertaesum est— with Gen., 377-
pessum— defective, 70,A ; with Ire, 435,
N.I.
petere— with aand Abl., 339.B.1 and N.I;
with Ace. Ger., 430.N.1; with Inf., 423,
2,N.2; with ut, 546.N.1.
Phalaecean — verse, 796.
Pherecratean — verse, 794.
phonetic variations — in vowels, 8; in con-
sonants, 9 ; in consonant stem-charac-
teristic, 121, B.
piget— with Gen., 377; with subj., ib. B.2.
pill— as Gen. of Price, 380,1.
plnus— heteroclite, 68,5.
plus— Comp. of, 87.6.N.
place— where, in Abl., 385 ; with vbs. of
Placing, ib. B.I ; with Towns, 386 ; as
Cause, Means, etc., 389 ; with Books,
etc., 387 ; with totus, etc., 388 ; in Loc.,
411: ivhence, in Abl., 390, 391 ; with
Towns, 391; of origin, 395.N.2 ; whither,
in Ace., 337.
piace"re— with Dat., 346, K. 2; use of Fut.
Pf., 244.R.3.
pleasure— vbs. of, with Dat., 346; adjs. of,
with Abl. Sup., 436.N.2.
plebs— decl. of, 63.N.1, 68,8.
plenty— vbs. of, with Abl., 405 ; adjs. of.
with Gen. or Abl., ib. N. 3.
530
GENERAL ItfDEX.
plSnus— with Gen., 374.N.1 ; with Abl.,
405.N.3.
pleonasm— 692.
pleraque— as Ace. of Respect, 338,2.
pluere — with Abl. of Means, 401.N.5.
PLUPEBFECT — 112,3 ; formation of, 114,
115 ; Aor. forms of, 131,4,6,3 ; denned,
223 ; force of, 241; translated by Impf.,
ib. B. ; used as Aor., ib. N.I; periphras-
tic, with habeo, ib. N.2 ; Subjv. as Po-
tential of Past, 258.N.2 ; in Wish, 260 ;
with vellem, 261,E. ; Subjv. as Conces-
sive, ib. N.; Subjv. as Impv. of Past,
273,3 ; tense force in Subjv., 277 ; in
Final Sentences, 512,N.l ; to express
Resulting Condition, 563,1 ; Indie, in
Apod, of Unreal Condition, 597.B.2.
plural— of abstracts, 204.N.5; used for
Sg., ib. NN.6,7 ; pred. with two subjs.,
285; neut. pred. to two ferns., 286,3.
plus — quam omitted with, 296,u.4 ; plu-
ris, with vbs. of Bating and Buying,
380,1 ; plurimum, with quantum, 467,
N. ; plurimi, as Gen. of Price, 380,1.
poema — heteroclite, 68,7.
pollere— with Inf., 423,2,N.2.
pollicerl— with inf., 627.B.2, 531.N.4.
pollis— decl. of, 41,4.
pondo— defective, 70.A.
pone— usage of, 416,19.
ponere— with in and Abl., 386, B.I and N.
2; suppose, with Inf., 527.B.2.
poscere— with two Aces. ,339 and N.I; with
g and Abl., ib. B.I ; with Inf. or ut, 546,
NN.1,3.
position— adjs. of, in pred. attrib., 325, R.
6; of advs., 440 ; of neg., 448 and NN.; of
rel., 612 ; of correlative clause, 620 ;
poetical peculiarities in, 683.
positive— degree lacking, 87,2,7,8, and 9;
with prep, to express disproportion,
298,R.; in comparing qualities, 299; with
quam after Comp., 299.N.2 ; with Part.
Gen., 372.N.2; supplied from neg., 447,
B.
posse— conj. of, 119; potisfor posse, 209,
N.2; use of Fut. and Fut. Pf. of, 242,a.2,
244.B.3; needs no periphrasis, 248,B. ;
Indie, for Subjv., 254,B.l ; Impf. Indie,
of Disappointment, ib. B.2 ; with Pf.
Inf. act., 280,2,&, and N.I ; with quam,
etc., to strengthen superlative, 303 ;
omitted, with quam, ib. B.I; with Inf.,
423,2,N.2 ; nOn possum non, 449.B.1 ;
in simple questions, 453, N.I : for" peri-
phrastic, 513, B.3, 531. N. 3 and 4; in Apod,
of Unreal Condition, 597,B.5,c ; restric-
tions with, 627.B.2 ; in Logical Condi-
tion, 657, B. ; in Unreal Condition in
O.O.,659,N.
Possession— Dat. of, 349 ; compared with
Gen., ib. B.2 ; of qualities, ib. B.3; Gen.
of, 362; in 1st and 2d person, ib. B.I ;
omission of governing word, ib. B.3.
possessive pronouns — 100-102, 106.N.4 ;
usage of suus, 309,4 and NN. ; syntax of,
312; intense use of, ib. a.l ; for Gen. of
personal pron., 304,2,N.2 ; with Gen. in
app., 321,i>.2 ; for 1st and 2d persons in
Subjective Gen., 364 ; as pred., 366, B.3 :
with interest aud refert, 381 ; with
(loml, 411.B.4; position of, 676.B.1.
possibility — in Indie, rather than Subjv.,
254.B.1, 255.B.
post— vbs. cpd. with, take Dat., 347; with
Abl. or Ace. of Measure, 403.N.4; posi-
tion of, 403,N.4,6, 413.B.1 ; omission of,
with rel., 403,N.4; as adv., 415; as
prep., 416,20; with Pf. part. pass. ,437,
N.2.
posteaquam— see postquam.
posterum— defective, 74.B.2; Comp. of,
87, 2 and 7.
postquam— with Hist. Pf. or Pr., 561;
with Impf., 562 ; with Plupf., 563 ; range
of tenses with, ib. NN.1-3; with Subjv.,
ib. N.4; Causal with Pr. and Pf., 564 and
N.I ; in Iterative action, 566,567.
postrldiS quam— 577.N.5.
p8stulare— with gaud Abl., 339, R.I and
N.I ; with Inf., 423.2.N.2, 546.N.3 ; with
ut, ib. N.3.
pOt5ns— with Gen., 374.N.3.
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE— 257-259; for Pr.
and Fut., 267; for Past, 258; in ques-
tions, 259; for Indie., 257.N.3 ; not con-
ditional, 257.N.2, 600,2; of Past coincides
with Unreal of Present, 258.N.2.
potlrl— with Abl., 407 and N.2,d ; with
personal Ger., 427.N.5.
potis, e— 85,C; potior, 87,7; potius
strengthens comparative, 301 ; potius
quam, with Subjv. or Inf., 577.N.6, 631,
3.B.2, 644.B.3 ; see posse.
power — adjs. of, with Gen., 374 ; vbs. of,
with Inf., 423 and N.2; sequence after
vb. of, 515,B.3; in Indie, rather than
Subjv., 254,B.l, 255.B.
GENERAL INDEX.
531
prae— to express disproportion, 296.N.3;
vbs. cpd. with take Dat., 347; gives
Preventing Cause, 408.N.4; as adv., 415;
as prep., 417,9 ; prae quod, 525,2,
N.2.
praecellere— with Abl- of Kespect, 397,
N.2.
praecipere— with Inf., 423.2.N.2; with
ut, 646, N.I ; used personally in pass.,
217.N.2 ; praeceptum, with ut,546,N.2.
praecipitare— with Abl., 390.2.N.3.
praecipuum— with ut, 557.B.
praeesse— with Dat. Ger., 429,1.
praeficere— with Dat. Ger., 429,1.
praegestire— with inf., 423.2.N.2.
(in) praesentia— -for the present, 394, R.
praesidSre— with Dat., 347.R.2.
praestare— with Dat., 347.R.2 ; with Abl.
of Kespect, 397, N.2; with Abl. of Meas-
ure, 403.N.1; with ut, 653,1.
praest51arl— with Dat., 346.N.2.
praeter— to express disproportion, 296,
K.3; vbs. cpd. with, take Ace., 331; posi-
tion of, 413.N.3; use as prep., 416,21;
with Pf. part, pass., 437.N.2 ; id quod,
quam quod, quod, 625,2,N.2.
praeterlre— with quod, 525,l,N.l.
precarl— with ut, 646.N.1.
predicate— and copula, 205 ; with copula-
tive vbs., 206 ; concord of, 211 ; viola-
tion of concord of,i'6. RR.l-C,NN.l-3 ; in
PI. with two subjs., 285 ; in PI. with
neque— neque, #»• N.I ; concord of, in
Gender, 286 ; in Person, 287 ; Attribu-
tion, 326; Apposition, ib. and K.6; with
Abl. Abs., 410.N.6; after Inf., 638.
prepositions — assimilation of in composi-
tion, 9,4 ; denned, 16,6 ; repeated with
cpd. vbs., 331,BB.2,3 ; with Countries
and Towns, 337, KR. 1-4; withdomum,z5-
R.3; omitted with Countries and Towns,
337,NN.l-3; instead of Dat., 347.R.1 ;
omitted with vbs. and adjs. of Separa-
tion, 390,2 and 3; with Abl. of Origin,
395,NN.2,3 ; syntax of, 412-416 ; origin of,
412; position of, 413,678; repetition and
omission of, 414; as advs., 415; with
Ace., 416 ; with Abl., 417; with Ace. and
Abl., 418 ; two with same case, 414, R.4;
improper, 412,N. ; with participles for
abstract substantives, 437.N.2.
PRESENT— 112,3" ; System, 114,3, a ; rules
for formation of, 121,1 ; notes on Sys-
tem, 130 ; formation of Stem, 133 ; de-
fined, 223 ; Historical, 224, 229 ; Spe-
cific or Universal, 227 ; Progressive, ib.
N.I ; of Endeavor, ib. N.2 ; of Resist-
ance to Pressure, ib. N. 3 ; anticipates
Put., 228 ; with iam, etc., 230 ; con-
trasted with Pf. to give Effect in VER-
GIL, ib. N.3 ; part, with esse, 247.N.2 ;
Indie, for Deliberative Subjv., 254.N.2 ;
Subjv. as Potential, 287,2 ; Subjv. in
Wishes, 260; Subjv. as Irnpv., 263, 270,
B.2 ; Subjv. as Concessive, 264 ; tense
relations in Subjv., 277 ; Inf. as subj. or
obj., 280, 1 ; Inf. after memini, 281,2,
N.; part., 282 ; part, as subst.,437,N.l ;
Hist, sequence alter, 511.R.1 ; Inf. after
vbs. of Saying and Thinking, 530 ; Inf.
for Fut., 631,NN.3and 4.
preventing — vbs. of, with ng( quominus,
or qum, 548, 549, 555,1.
previous condition— given by ex °r ab,
and Abl., 206.R.2, 396.N.2.
Priapean— verse, 805.
Price— Gen. of, 379; Abl. of, 404.
prldiequam — usage of, 577.N.5.
primitive words — 179, 1.
primoris— defective, 85,1.
primus— with quisque, 318.N.3 ; prlmo,
primum, 325.R.7 ; in pred. attrib., 326,
B.6 ; used partitively, 291 ; prior,
87,8.
principal parts — 120.
principal tenses — 225.
priusquam— with Indie,, 574, 576 ; with
Pr., 675; with pure Pf., ib. N.I; with
Pf. or Fut, 576; non priusquam. -
dum, »&• B.; with Subjv., 677 ; with ut
or Inf., 644.B.3.
pr5— to express disproportion, 298 ; with
habere, 340.R.1 ; with Nom. or Ace. in
Exclamations, 343,l,N.l ; for, compared
with Dat., 345.B.2 : position of,413,R.l :
as prep., 417,10; with Abl. Ger., 433 :
pro eo quod, 525,2, N.2 ; pro e5 ut, 642,
B.4.
probare— with inf., 527.B.2.
proereatUS— with Abl. of Origin, 395,N.l.
procul— with Abl. of Separation, 390.3.N.
2 ; as prep., 417,11.
prodesse— conj. of, 118 ; with Dat., 346,
B.2; with Inf., 422.N.4.
prodigUS— with Gen., 374.N.1.
profectO— strengthens atque, 477.N.2.
proficere— with ut, 553,1.
profundus— never with Ace., 335.R.1.
532
GENERAL INDEX.
profusus— with Gen., 374.N. 1.
prognatus — with Abl. of Origin, 395.N.1.
prohibere— with two ACCS., 341.N.2 ; with
Abl., 390.2.N.3; with Inf., 423.2.N.2;
with n8, 548. and N.I ; with quSminus,
549, and N.I ; with Inf., 532.N.1, 549.N.1.
prohibiting— vbs. of, with Dat., 345, K.I.
proinde — strengthens Impv., 269 ; as
coordinating conj., 503 ; and proin, ib.
prolepsis — of subj. of leading clause, 468.
promising — vbs. of, with Inf., 423,N.5,
527, B.4; 531.N.4.
promittere-with Pr. Inf., 527.R.2, 531,
N.4.
PRONOUNS — defined, 16,3 ; compared with
uouns, ib. N.2 ; decl. of, 17 ; Personal,
100-102 ; Determinative, 103 ; Demon-
strative, 104 ; Relative, 105 ; Interroga-
tive, 106 ; Indefinite, 107 ; Pronominal
Adjectives, 108 ; Possessive, 100-102 ;
omitted, 207 ; with Impv., 267.N.; syn-
tax of, 304-319 ; Personal, 304 ; Demon-
strative, 305-307 ; hie, 305 ; iste, 306 ;
ille, 307 ; Determinative is, 308 ; Ke-
flexive, 309 ; idem, 310 ; ipse, 311 ; Pos-
sessive, 312 ; Indefinite, 313-319 ; qul-
dam, 313 ; aliquis, 314 ; quis, 315 ;
quispiam, 316 ; quisquam and ullus,
317; quisque, 318; alter and alius,
319 ; with Part. Gen., 371 ; in O. O., 660.
pr5nuntiare— used personally in pass.,
217.N.2.
prSnus— constr. of, 359, N. 5.
prope— as adv., 415 ; as prep., 416,22 ;
position of, 678.K.1 ; propior and prox-
imus, 87,8 ; with Ace. or ab, 369.K.1.
properare— with inf., 423.2.N.2.
prSplnare— with Ace. Ger., 430.N.1.
propinquus— Comp. of, 87,9.
proponere— with ACC. Ger., 430.N.1.
prSpOSitum— est, with Inf., 423,2, N.2;
with ut, 646.N.2.
proprius — with Gen. or Dat., 359. R.I ;
with ut, 557.B.
propter — compared with Abl. of Cause,
408, N. 3 ; position of, 413.K.1 ; as adv.,
415; as prep., 416,23; with Ace. Ger.,
432 and N.I.
propterea— 503.
prosody— 701-823.
prospicere —with Dat., 346, R. 2 ; with
Inf., 627,R.l ; with ut, 546.N.1.
prostare— with Gen. of Price, 379.
protasis — defined, 589 ; equivalents of,
593 ; omission of vb. of, 599 ; total
omission of, 600.
protraction — 743.
providere— with ut, 546.N.1.
providing — vbs. of, with Abl., 401.N.1.
providus— Comp. of, 87,5.
proximum— i« phrases with ut, 557.R.
prudgns— in pred. attrib., 325,B.G ; with
Gen., 374.N.4.
-pte — added to personal pronouns, 102.N.
3.
pudet— with Gen., 377 and B.I ; with
subj., ib. R.2.
puer— Voc. of, 33.N.2.
pugnare— with Dat., 346.N.6 ; with ut,
546.N.1.
purpose— in Inf., 423.N.1 ; in Dat. Ger.,
429,2; in Sup., 435; in Fut.part, 438.N.;
sequence in clauses of, 512 ; reflexive in
clauses of, 521; rel. clauses of, 630; sea
Final Sentences.
purus— with Abl. of Sep., 390.3.N.
putare— with Gen. of Price, 379; with two
Noms. in pass., 206; (n5n) putaveram,
254.N.1 ; pnta, ut puta, for example,
274; with Inf., 627.R.2.
putting — vbs. of, with Dat. and Ace., or
Ace. and Abl., 348.
Qua— qua, 482,3.
. quaerere— with g, d6, ex, 339.R.1 ; with
Inf., 423.2.N.2 ; with Direct Question,
467.N.
quaeso— 175,6 ; with Impv., 269; without
Inf., 546.N.3.
quails — in phrases instead of Compara-
tive, 296, N. 3.
Quality — possession of, 349, R. 3 ; Gen. of,
365 and B.I ; Gen. and Abl. of, ib. R.->.
400.K.1 ; Gen. of, as pred., 366; Abl. of,
400 ; personified quality as person, ib.
R.2 ; Comparison of qualities, 299.
quam— after comparatives, 296 and R.1 ;
omission of, ib. B.4 ; preps, instead, ib.
N.3 ; atque instead, ib. N.4 ; with pro,
Ut, qui, to express disproportion, 298 ;
with positive for comparative, 299.N.2 ;
in comparison of qualities, 299; with po-
tuit and superlative, 303; with qui and
superlative, ib. R.2; magis, nSn aliter,
quam ut, 557.N.2 ; quam si, with
Subjv. of Comparison, 602 : with qui
or ut after comparatives, 631,3 : with
quam qui and superlative, 642.R.5;
GENERAL INDEX.
533
after alius or secus, 643,N.4, with Com-
parative Sentences, 644 ; with potius,
prius, etc., B.3.
quamdiu— 568; with Indie., 569; range
of, ib. N.I.
quamlibet— 606.
quamquam— 603 and N.; with Indie.,
605; with Subjv., ib. KB. 1,2, and N; and
yet, ib. a.3 ; with part., 609.N.1, 667.N. ;
with Inf., 635.N.2.
quamvlS— 603 and N. ; with Subjv., 606;
with Indie., ib. N.I; inflection of vb. of,
ib. N.2 ; with licet, 607.N.2; with part.,
609.N.1, 667.N. ; with adj. or adv., 609,
N.2.
quandS— with Causal Indie., 640; with
Subjv., 641 ; early use, 538.N.3, 680.N.3;
conditional use, 690.N.3.
quandoque— with causal clause, 641.N.5;
quandoque— quandoque, 482.1.N.1.
quantity— rules for, 702-706 ; of final
syllables, 707-713; of polysyllables, 707-
709; of monosyllables, 710-713 ; of stem
syllables, 714 ; of cpds., 715 ; in early
Latin, 716, 717.
quantity— 12; substs. of, with Gen., 368.
quantum— with minim, minium, etc.,
209.N.2, 467.N. ; with maximus and
potuit t° strengthen superlative, 303 ;
quantum qul, with superlative, ib. B.
2; quantl, with vbs. of Bating and
Buying, 380 ; with ad vs. and Indie.,
467,N.
quantumvls— 603 and N., 606.
quasi— with subst., 439, N. 4; with Subjv.
of Comparison, 602; with Indie., ib. N.I;
to apologize, eft.N.2; to give an Assumed
Reason, id. N.4, 666.N.
quatenus— as a Causal particle, 638.N.5.
quattuor — early forma of, 95.N.3.
que— added to rels., 111,2 ; syntax of,
476 and NN.; for quoque, 479.N.2 ; adds
third member, 481, N.
quemadmodum— sic, 482,3,N.
querl — with Ace. and Inf., 633.R.1.
questions— with Potential Subjv., 259;
deliberative, 265, 465 rpassionate equiv.
to command, 273, 453.N.2 ; predicate
and nominal, 451 ; rhetorical, 265, 451,
B.2, 464, 466 ; direct simple, 453-457;
equiv. to Condition, 463.N.3; with ne,
454 ; with nonne, 455 ; with num, 456 ;
with an, 457 ; direct disjunctive, 458 ;
neg. of, 459 ; particles in indirect, 460 ;
moods in, 482-467 ; Indie, in, 463, 464;
Subjv. in, 465, 466 ; indirect, 467 ; gen-
uine, 463; disconnected, 467.N. ; ex-
clamatory, 658.
qul interrogative — 106 and B.
qul relative — 105 and NN.; with quam
and Subjv. to express disproportion,
298 ; after dlgnus, etc., 552.B.2; equiv.
to si quis, 625,2; explicative, 626;
strengthened by ut, utpote, qulppe,
ib. N.I ; quod sciam, 627.B.1 ; equiv. to
Cum is, 626.B., 633, 634 ; equiv. to ut is,
630, 631; after comparatives with
quam, 631,3 ; equiv. to adj., ib. 4 ; sed
qul, qul tamen, 636.N.2-, quo quis-
que, with comparative, 642, K. 2; see
qu8 and qua.
quia— after vbs. of Doing and Happening,
525,1, N.4; origin of and, correlatives
with, 638,NN.1,2 ; with Causal Indie.,
540; with Subjv., 641; after vbs. of
Emotion, 542, n.; with Inf., 635.N.2.
qulcumque— 106 and N.5; with Indie.,
254,4, 625.
quldam— 107,2 ; syntax of, 313 ; with
quasi, 319, B.2; strengthened by cer-
tus, unus, 313.F..;}.
quidem — with demonstrative pron., 307,
B.4 ; position of, 413.N.3, 679 ; yes, with
sang, 471,a.,l.
qnilibet— 107 and N.
quin — with mlrum, 209.N.2; strength-
ens Impv., 269 ; non quin as Causal,
641.N.2; force of, 647; in Consecutive
Sentences, 652,3 ; with vbs. of Prevent-
ing, 555,1 ; with vbs. of Doubt and Un-
certainty, ib. 2; after non dubito, ib. 2,
B.I ; equiv. to ut non, 656 ; after vbs.
of Saying, etc., 555,2 ; in Relative Sen-
tences of Character, 632 and B. ; facere
non possum quin, 556.
qulppe— 498.N.8; with qul, 628.N.1.
qulqui— 105 and N.4.
quire — conjugation of, 170,a; with Inf.,
433,2,N.2.
quis indefinite — and qui, 107,1; for ali-
quis, ib. B. and N.I ; syntax of, 315 ;
aliquis instead, ib. N.I ; familiar usage
of, 317.2.N.2.
quis interrogative — 106 ; and qul, t'6. B.;
old forms of, ib. NN.1,2 ; qul in Wishes,
261; for uter, 300.N.
quisnam— 106 and N.5.
quispiam — 107,3, and N.I ; syntax of, 316.
534
GENERAL INDEX.
quisquam— 107,3,andN.2; syntax of,317;
strengthened by unus, ib. l.N.l; nega-
tive of, ib. 2; as adj., ib. 1,N.3.
quisque— 107, 5, and N. ; quisquis instead,
105.N.4; with PI. vb., 211,B.l,Ex.a; with
ordinal, 294.N., 318,2; syntax of, 318;
with superlatives, ib- 2 ; with reflexives,
ib. 3; attraction of, ib. N.2 ; suum quis-
que, ib. N.4; with quo and compara-
tive, 642, K. 2 ; ut quisque, with super-
lative, ib.
quisquis— 105 ; as adj., ib. N.4; with
Indie., 254,4, 625.
qulvis— 107,4 and N.
quo — as Causal conjunction, 541, N. 2 ; n5n
quo in Final Clauses, 545,2 ; quonS, ib.
B.I; quo setius, 549.N.4.
quoad— force of, 568 ; of complete coex-
tension, 569; until, with Indie., 571; with
Subjv., 572; until, with Subjv., ib. N.5.
quod— in Inner Obj., 333 l.N.l ; introduces
Object Sentences, 524; after vbs. of Add-
ing and Dropping, 525,1 : after demon-
stratives, ib. 2; and ut, ib. 1.N.5 ; quid
est quod, ib. 1.N.2; after verba senti-
endi, ib. N.T; after demonstratives,
with preps., ib. 2.N.2; as to the fact that,
with Subjv., ib. 2.N.3; with Subjv. in
O. O., ib. 3; after vbs. of Motion, ib.l,
N.6; gives Ground in Exclamations, 534,
B.I ; with Causal Sentence in Indie.,
540; with Causal Sentence in Subjv.,
541 ; after vbs. of Emotion, 542 ; with
dlceret, »&• N.S ; non quod, ib. N.2 ;
magis quod, 641.N.2 ; correlatives of,
638.N.1 ; and quia, ib. N.2; nisi quod,
591.K.3 ; quod si, 610.B.2.
quoni — see cum.
quSminus— force of, 547; with vbs. of
Preventing, etc., 549; for nS, 548.N.2;
and quin, 549.N.3.
quomodo— with Direct Question, 467.N.
quoniam — with Causal Indie., 540 ; with
Subjv., 641; original force of, 538.N.3 ;
early tisage of, 580.N.3.
quoque— syntax of, 479 ; and etiam, 479,
K. and N.I ; que instead, ib. N.2 ; with
sed and vSrum, 482,5 and N.I.
Bating— vbs. of, with Gen. and Abl., 379,
380.
rati5— in Abl. of Manner, 399, N.I ; with
Ut, 546.N.2.
s— with Abl., 390, 3,N.l.
recipere— with Abl. or in, 389.
reciprocal relations— given by inter sS,
221; by alter alterum, etc., ib. B.I ; by
invicem, mutuo, etc., ib. a.2.
recitation of verses — 754.
recordarl — with Pr. Inf., 281,2,N. ; with
Ace., 376.K.2.
rectum — with Inf., 422,N.3.
recusare— with Inf., 423.2.N.2; with n6,
648.N.1; with quominus, 549 and N.I ;
constr. with, 549,N.l.
red— in composition, 9,4, 715.R.3.
reddere— with Pf. part., 537.N.2; reddl
and fieri, 206.N.1, 340.B.1.
reduplication — in Pr. stem, 133,11.; in
Pf. stem, 134,111. ; omitted in Pf. of
cpd. vbs., ib.
Reference— Dat. of, 352.
rgfert— with Gen. and Abl., 381, 382 ;
Nom. with, 381.N.3 ; origin of, ib. N.5;
expression of Degree of Concern, 382,1
and 2 ; expression of Thing Involved,
ib. 3.
refertus— with Gen., 374.N.1.
reflexive— 218 ; passive used for, 218;
approaches deponent, 218,R-; pronouns,
309 ; is retained instead of reflexive, ib.
N.I ; strengthened, ib. N.2 ; suum quis-
que, 318.N.3 ; with ipse, 311,2 ; with
Ace. of Respect, 338,N.2; in subordinate
clauses, 520-522 ; not in Consecutive
Sentences, 521,K.l ; refers to real subj.,
309,2, 521.B.2; free use of, ib.R.3; Indie.
Relative Sentences, ib. a.4 ; ambiguity
in, ib. N.3 ; demonstrative instead of,
ib. B.l.N.3.
reformidare— with inf., 423.2.N.2.
refragarl— with Dat, 346.R.2.
refraining — vbs. of, with quin, 555,1.
refusing— vbs. of, with nS, 548 ; with
quominus, 549; with Inf., 548.K.2; with
quin, 555,1.
Reizianus Versus— 822.
regiS— in Abl. without in, 385.N.1.
relation — suffixes for, 181,8.
relationship — suffixes for, 181,7,182,11.
relative pronouns — 105 ; made indefinite,
111,1 ; or universal, ib. 2; in Inner Obj.,
333.1.N.2 ; instead of app. with rgfert,
381.N.2; contrasted with interrogative,
467.K.2, 611,B.2; indefinite with Indie.,
354,B.4; with Subjv., 667.N. ; advs. in-
stead, 611,B.l; continued bydemonstra-
tive, 636.N.1; repetition of, 615-
GENERAL INDEX.
535
RELATIVE SENTENCES— 610-637 ; for Pro-
tasis, 593,1: general consideration of,
610; how introduced, 611; position of,
612; antecedent in, 613 ; concord in, 614
and EB.; id quod, etc., in app. to a sen-
tence, ib. R.2 ; incorporation of app., ib.
B.4 ; repetition of antecedent, 615; in-
corporation of antecedent, 616; attrac-
tion of, 617 ; correlative of, 618 ; absorp-
tion of correlative, 619; position of
correlative, 620; indefinite antecedent,
621; tenses in, 622,623; in Iterative
action, 623 ; moods in, 624-635 ; indefi-
nite and generic relatives with Indie.,
254.B.4, 625,1; or Subjv., ib. B.; condi-
tional, 625,2 ; explanatory, 626 ; Subjv.
in explanatory, 627 ; quod sciam, etc.,
ib. K.I; restrictions with esse, posse,
attinet, i&- R.2; with Subjv. by Partial
Obliquity, 628 ; with Subjv. by Attrac-
tion, 629 ; Final, 630 ; attraction of
diceret, ib. N.3 ; Consecutive, 631 ; after
definite antecedent, ib* 1 ; after indefi-
nite antecedent, i6.2 ; after compara-
tive, ib. 3; parallel to adj., ib. 4 ; with
quln, 632; Causal, 633; Concessive and
Adversative, 634; in Inf., 635 ; combina
tion of, 636; participle instead, 637,668;
in O. O., 655 and BB.
relatu— as Sup., 436.N.
relieving — vbs. of, with Abl., 390,2.
relinquere— with Ace. Ger., 430.N.1.
reliquum est— with ut, 553,4.
reliquilS— used partitively with Subst.,
291.K.2 ; alius for, 319.N.1 ; reliqua,
as Ace. of Kespect, 338,2.
remembering— vbs. of, with Gen., 376 ;
with Ace., ib. R. 2.
rgmex— defective, 70, D.
reminding — vbs. of, with Gen., 376; with
Abl. or Ace., ib. EB.1,2.
removing — vbs. of, with Abl., 390,2.
rendering— vbs. of, with Inf., 421,N.1,6.
reperlrl— with Nom. and Inf., 528.N.1.
repetition of relative, 615-
repletus— with Gen., 374.N.1.
reponere— with in and Ace., 385, N. 2.
reposcere— with two Aces., 339 and N. 1,
representatio — 654 and N., 656.N.1.
representation— vbs. of, with Ace. and Inf.,
526, 527 ; with part., 527.N.1, 536.
reprimere— with ne, 548,N.i.
repugnare — with Dat., 346, K. 2 ; with n6,
548,N.lT
requiSs— heteroclite, 68,8.
requiring— vbs. of, with two Aces., 339
and B.1.N.1 ; with ab, ib. N.2.
r Sri— part, of, with Pr. force, 282, N.
r6s— for neut, 204.N.4; construed like
neut., 211.N.2 ; with AppositionalGgn.,
361,1 ; in phrases with Inf., 422,N.2*7
divlnam rem facere, with Abl., 401, N.
* ; rem certare, 333,2,R.
resistere— with Dat., 346.R.2 -, with n8,
548.N.1 ; with qum, 555,1.
resisting— vbs. of, with Dat., 346.
resolution— of long syllable, 732.
resolving— vbs. of, with Inf., 423 and N.2 ;
with ut, 646.
Kespect— Ace. of, 338; with vbs. of Cloth-
ing, etc., ib. N. 2 ; Abl. of, 397 ; Abl. of,
with comparatives, 398 ; Abl. of, with
words of Eminence or Superiority, 397,
N.2 ; preps, instead, ib. N.I.
respice— with Direct Question, 467.N.
responde— with Direct Question, 467.N. ;
ius respondere, 333, 2, B.
rest — conceived as end of Motion, 412,
B.2.
restat— with ut, 553,4.
restrictions— in Relative Sentences, 627,
BR.1,2.
result— for Sentences of, see Consecutive
Sentences.
r6t§— heteroclite, 68,12.
retinere— with n§, 548.N.1.
reus— with Gen., 374.N.2 ; 378.B.1.
ridere — with Ace. and Inf., 533,R.l.
rhotacism— 47.
rhythm— in arrangement, 627,2,6 ; de-
nned, 739 ; ascending or descending,
735 ; names of, 736 ; classes of, 737 ;
rhythmical series, 738 ; union of Ian,
guage with, 748.
rSbur— decl. of, 44,5, 45,R-2.
rogare— with two Aces., 339,and N.I ; with
Ace. Ger., 430.N.1 ; with ut, 546.N.1 ;
with Direct Question, 467.N. ; rogatU,
of Moving Cause, 408.N.1.; with Inf. or
Ut, 546,N.3.
root— denned, 25,1, N., 177.
rudis— with Gen., 374.N.4.
ru.S— as limit of Motion, 337 ; in Abl.
ofSeparation, 390,2; rurl in Loc., 411,
R.2.
S— final omitted, 27,N., 703.E.3; suffixes
with, 188.
536
GENERAL INDEX.
sacer— with Gen. or Dat., 359, B. 1 ; sa-
crum facere, with Abl., 401.N.4.
Sacramento— as Abl. of Manner, 399,
N.I.
sacrificare— with Abl., 401.N.4.
sacrificing — vbs. of, with Abl., 401,N.4.
saepe— as attrib. to subst., 439.N.4.
saltern— strengthens at, 488.N.2.
salutaris— has no superlative, 87,9.
salv6re— conjugation of, 176,4.
sane— strengthens Iinpv., 269 ; very, 439,
N.3 ; with concessive n6, 608 ; with
quamand Indie,, 467.N.; yes, 471,a.
sanguls — decl. of, 41,4.
sapiens — as subst., 437.N.1.
Sapientia— in phrases with Inf., 422, N.
2 ; with ut, 657.R.
Sapphic— verse, 797, 804.
satias— heteroclite, 68,8 and 12.
satis — i' fry, 439.N.3 ; attraction of pred.
after satius est, 535.R.3.
saturate— with Gen., 383,l,N.2.
Saturnian— verse, 758-
satUS— with Abl. of Origin, 395,N.l.
saying — vbs. of, with Object Clause, 523 ;
vbs. of, with quod, 625,1,N.7 ; vbs. of,
with Ace. and Inf., 626,527 ; vbs. of,
with Nona, in pass., 528 ; vbs. of, at-
tracted into Subjv. after quod, 541.N.
3 ; vbs. of, omitted, 645.B.3 ; vbs. of,
with quin, 555,2.
scat6re— with Gen., 383.1.N.2.
scazon— verse, 762.
scientia— in phrases with ut, 657.R.
scilicet — yes, 47l,o,2.
SClre— first Impv. wanting, 267.R- ; sciens
inpred. attrib., 325, R.G ; quod sciam,
quantum sci5, 627, R-l ; with Inf.,
423,2,N.2, 527.R.1 ; followed by direct
question, 467,N. ; sciens, with Gen.,
375.N.2; sdtQ as Sup., 436.N.
scrlbere— with Ace. and Inf., 627, R. 2;
with ut, 546,N,1.
season— adjs. of, in pred. attrib., 325, K. 6.
secondary words — see Derivatives.
secundum— as prep., 416,24; alter for
secundus.
S6CUS— 70,B ; sequius, 87,8 ; strengthens
Sin, 694; with quam, 643.N.4.
S8d— in composition, 9,4, 715.B.1.
Bed — introduces contrast to demonstra-
tive, 307.B.4 ; with etiam, quoque,
after non modo, 482,5 and N.I; with
nS— quidem, ib. B.I ; omitted, ib. N.2 ;
with et, ib. N.2; syntax of, 485 ; repeat-
ed, ib. N.2 ; strengthened, ib. N.3.
seeking— vbs. of, with Final Dat., 356,N.2.
seeming — vbs. of, with two Noms., 206.
semi-deponents — 167-
semi-hiatus— 720,R.l.
semi-vowels— 6,2, A.
sempiternum— as adv. Ace., 336.N.1.
senatus— decl. of, 61, 68.5.
sending— vbs. of, with Ace. Ger., 430.
senex— decl. of, 56,5 ; Comp. of, 87,9.
sentence— simple or cpd., 201 ; syntax of
simple, 202,ff. ; simplest form of, 202;
simple expanded, 284, ff. ; incomplete,
450-470 ; coordination of, 473 ; Copula-
tive, 474-482; Adversative, 483-491; Dis-
junctive, 492-497 ; Causal and Illative,
498-503 ; Object, 523-537 ; Causal, 538-
542 ; Final, 543-550 ; Consecutive, 551-
558 ; Temporal, 559-688 ; Conditional,
589-602; Concessive, 603-609 ; Relative,
610-637; Abridged, 645-663; Partici-
pial, 664-670.
sententia— in phrases with ut, 646.N.2,
557.B.
sentlre— with Ace. and Inf., 627.B.2.
Separation— Gen. of, 374.N.8, 383,2 ; Abl.
of, 390.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES— 509-519 ; rule and
modifications, 509; general considera-
tions, 610 ; shift from primary to sec-
ondary sequence, 511.B.2 ; in sentences
of Design, 512 ; iu sentences of liesult,
613 ; in coincident sentences, ib. N.3 ;
representation of Subjv. in, 614, 515 ;
in O. O., 516 ; after other moods, 517 ;
after Inf. or part., 518 ; original Subjvs.
in, 619 ; derangement of, ib. B.; in Com-
parative Sentences, 602, R.l ; after Hist.
Pr.,611, B.I; after Pure Pf., ib. R.3,
613.R.1 ; after Hist. Pf., 511.R.4 ; after
accidit, etc., ib. R.2 ; after vb. with
future character, 615, B. 3.
sequester— heteroclite, 68,4.
sequitur— with ut, 553,3.
sertum — heteroclite, 68,3.
servire— with Dat., 346.R 2.
servus — omitted, 362.N.1.
shortening — of penult, 701,R-2,ft; of vow-
els, 716, 717.
showing — vbs. of, with two Noms., 206 ;
with two Aces., 340; with Ace. and Inf.,
526, 527 ; with Nom. and Inf., 528.
Si— with 5 in Wishes, 261 and N.I ; with-
GENERAL INDEX.
537
out 6 in Wishes, j&.N.l ; SIS, SOdes,
sultif. with Impv., 269 ; in Indirect
Question after vbs. of Trial, 460,1,6 ; in
Iterative action, 666, 667 ; sign of Con-
dition, 690 and N.I ; slquidem, ib. N.2,
596.B.5; si n5n and nisi, 691; sin, 692;
si uiodo, tamen, vero, 695,n.O; si
forte, ib. N.I; Concessive, 604, K.I ; with
Inf., 635.N.2.
sibilants— 6,2,A; suffixes with, 188.
Sic — coordinate with other particles, 482,
4,N.; correlative of si, 690.N.1.
slcut — gives Assumed Eeason, 602, N. 4.
significare— with inf., 527.B.2.
Slgnum— in phrases with ut, 646.N.2.
silentio— as Abl. of Manner, 399.N.1.
Bimilis- -compared, 87,3 ; with Gen. or
Dat., 359, K.1 and N.4.
simul— as prep., 417,12; simul— simul,
482,1 and N.I ; Temporal, with atque
(§c), as soon as, 661-563 ; Causal with
Pr. and Pf., 664and N.; with Fut. and
Fut. Pf., 665 and N.
simulare— with Inf., 627.R.2.
Bin— use of, 592; strengthened by minus,
- etc., ib. B.
sine— position of, 413.R.1 ; as prep., 417,
13 ; with Abl. Ger., 433.N.2.
sinere— with Inf., 423.N.C, 553,2,N.; with
ut,532,N.l,553,2.
singular— in collective sense for PL, 204,
N.8 ; Voc. with PI. vb., 211.N.2 ; neut.
sums up preceding PL, ib. N.3 ; as a
subj.. combined with cum and another
word, 285, N. 2.
singulare— in phrases with Inf., 422.N.3;
in phrases with ut, 553,4.
singulus— with numerals, 295.
Slquidem— 590, N. 2, 595,B.5.
sinister— Comp. of, 87,i,a.l.
Sis — strengthens Impv., 269.
sistl— as copulative vb., 206.N.1.
Slve— use of, 496 ; slve— slve, ib. 2,595,
R.4; or ib. N.I ; and SOU, ib. N.3.
smell— vbs. of, with Inner Object, 333,2,
N.5.
socer— and socerus, 32,l,N.
sod5s — strengthens Impv., 269-
SOlSre— with Inf., 423.2.N.2; BOlitS, as
Abl. of Respect, 398.N.1.
SOllicitarl— with Ace. and Inf., 533,B.l.
solus— decl. of., 76 ; in pred. attrib., 325,
B.6 ; n6n SOlum Bed, etc., 482,5, and B.I;
with qul and Subjv., 631,1.
solvere— with Abl., 390.2.N.2.
somniare— with Ace. and Inf., 527.B.1.
sonants — 6,2,B.
S0rtlt5— as Abl. of Manner, 399.N.1.
Sotadean— verse, 816.
sound— vbs. of, with neut. Ace. of Inner
Object, 333.2.N.6.
Specification— Gen. of, 361.
spectare— with ex and Abl., 402, B. 2.
specus— heteroclite, 68,9.
spgrare— with Inf., 527.R.2; with Pr.
Inf., 531.N.4.
SpSs— with est and Pr. Inf., 631.N.4; in
phrases with Inf., 527.B.2; with ut,
646.N.2 ; in Abl. of Respect, 398.N.1.
splnter— defective, 70.B.
sponte— defective,70,A.
Standard— Abl. of, 402, 403 ; ex and Abl.
instead of Abl., 402.B.2 ; Abl. of, with
ante or post, 403.N.4 ; Ace. of Extent
for Abl., ib. N. 3 ; of comparison omit-
ted, 297-
Stare— with Gen. of Price, 379; to abide
by, with Abl., 401, N.6 ; to persist in, with
Inf., 423,2,N.2.
Statuere— with in and Abl., 385.B.1 ; with
Inf., 423,2,N.2 ; with ut, 546.N.1.
Status— in phrases with ut, 557.B.
stem— 25,1, 132; Present, 114,3,a, 133;
Perfect, 114,3,6, 134; Supine, 114,3,c,
135 ; Formation of Verb stem, 132-135 ;
varies between Conjugations, 136;
quantity of stem syllables, 714.
stem-characteristic— 26, 120; euphonic
changes in, 121.R.
Stlllare— with AbL, 401.N.5.
studgre— with Dat., 346,s.2 ; with Dat.
Ger., 429,1 and N.I ; with Inf., 423.2.N.
2 ; with ut, 546.N.1.
Studiosus— with Gen., 374.N.5.
stultitia — in phrases with Inf., 422, N. 2.
Suadere— with Dat., 346.B.2, and N.2;
with Inf., 423.2.N.2 ; with ut, 646.N.1.
Sub — in composition, 9,4; vbs. cpd.
with, take Ace. or Dat., 331, 347; with
condicione, etc., 399,N.3 ; usage of, as
prep., 418,2.
subesse— with Dat, 347.B.2 ; timorem,
with Ace. and Inf., 533.B.1.
subject— 201 ; in Nom., 203 ; in Ace. with
Inf., ib. B.I ; forms of, 204 ; omitted,
207; of impersonal vbs., 208,1,N. and
2.N.1; Multiplication of, 285,ff.; Qualifi-
cation of, 288, ff.; prolepsis of subj. of
538
GENERAL INDEX.
dependent clause, 468 ; of Inf. omitted,
527.R.3, 532, K.2 and N.2; Ace. and Inf.
as, 535 ; attraction of pred. after Ace.
and Inf., ib. B.3.
Subjective— Genitive, 363, 364; poss. pron.
instead, 364.
SUBJUNCTIVE— 112,4 ; early forms of, 130,4;
Aorist forms of Pf. and Plupf., 131,4,6,
2,3; Indie, for Deliberative, 254.N.2;
with generic relatives, ib. B. 6,625, R.;
force of, 255 ; Indie, with vbs. of Possi-
bility, etc., I&.B. ; Ideal and Unreal, 256,1 ;
Potential and Opt., ib. 2 Potential
of Pr.and Fut., 257-259 ; Potential for
Indie., ib. N.3 ; Potential of Past, 258 ;
Potential of Past with vellem, etc. , ib.
N.I; Opt., 260; negs. of Opt., ^..parti-
cles with Opt., 261 ; Impf. for Unreal
wish, ib. N.2; in Asseverations, 262;
as Impv., 263, 267, 270, B., 272; as con-
cessive, 264 and N. ; tense relations of,
277 ; with quam ut or quam qul to
express disproportion, 298; in Delib-
erative or Rhetorical questions, 265,
465, 466 ; in Indirect questions, 467 ;
after vb. with Fut. character, 615,
K.3 ; Original in dependence, 519 ;
with quod, as to the fact that, 525,2,N.3 ;
in Final and Consecutive Sentences, 543,
4 ; with ut for Inf., 557.N.1 ; in Tem-
poral Clauses, 560,2, 563,NN.4,6 ; inlter-
ativo action, 567.N.; in Contemporane-
ous action, 572, 573 ; in Subsequent
action, 577 ; with cum, 585, 588 ; in
Belative Sentences, 627, 628 ; by Attrac-
tion, 509,4, 629 ; after potius, 644.R.3 ;
in 6. O., 650-652.
sublimis— in pred. attrib., 325.R.6.
SUbolet— with Inf., 422.N.4.
subordination — denned, 472; syntax of
Subordinate Clauses, 504,ff.; division
of, 505-507 ; moods in, 508 ; Sequence
of Tenses in, 509-519.
subsequent action — syntax of Sentences
of, 574-577 ; with Indie., 574-576; with
Subjv., 577.
substantives — denned, 16,1, and B.l.N.l ;
inflection of, 17; division of, 18; gender
of, 19, 20 ; mobilia, 21,2 ; epicene, ib.
3 ; irregular, 67-71 ; heterogeneous,
67 ; heteroclites, 68 ; metaplasts, ib, ;
defective, 69 ; singularia tantum, ib.
A ; pluralia tantum, n>. B ; hetero-
loga, ib. C ; formation of, 180, 181 ;
without suffixes, 183 ; adjs. and parts,
used as, 204.XN. ; PI. of abstracts, ib.
NN.5,6; agreement of pred., 211 and
BB..NN.; with several adjs. in Sg., 290,
B.2 ; common surname in PL, 290,
N.I ; verbal with Ace., 330.N.3, 337.N.5 ;
verbal with Dat., 356.N.3, 357, 358.N.2 ;
in Abl. Abs., 410.N.5 ; with Dat. Ger.,
428.N.5 ; with Inf. for Gen. Ger., ib. N.
4 ; in phrases with Final Sentence, 546,
B.2 ; in phrases with Consecutive Sen-
tence, 557 and B.
Sllbter— vbs. cpd. with take Ace., 331;
as adv., 415 ; as prep., 418,2.
subvenire— with Dat., 347.B.2.
suecSdere— with Dat., 347.B.2.
succrescere— with Dat., 347.B.2.
succumbere — with Dat., 347.R.2.
succurrere — with Dat., 347,8.2.
SUdare— with Abl. of Means, 401.N.5.
sufferre-Pf. of, 171.N.2.
suffixes— 180 ; primary and secondary, ib.
N.I; of substantives, 181; of adjs., 182;
forming diminutives, 181,12, 182,12; in
detail, 184-189 ; with vowels, 184 ; with
gutturals, 185 ; with dentals, 186 ; with
labials, 187 ; with s, 188 ; with liquids,
189.
suffragarl— with Dat., 346,s.2.
sui — decl. of, 102 and N.I ; with -met,
ib. N.2; with -pte, ib- N.3 ; circumlocu-
tion for Part. Gen., 304,3, N.2; usage of,
309, 520-522 ; complement of Inf., 309,3;
is instead, ib. N.I; with SUUS, ib. N.2.
sultis— strengthens Impv., 269.
sum— see esse.
summus — comparison of, 87,2 ; used par-
ti tively, 291, B.2.
supellex— decl. of, 44,5.
super — vbs. cpd. with, take Ace. or Dat.,
331, 347; as adv., 415; as prep., 418,4 ;
with Ace. Ger.,432,N.l ; with Abl. Ger.,
433 ; id quod, quam quod, 525,2,N.2.
superare— with Ace. of Respect, 397.N.2.
superesse— with Dat., 347.B.2.
superior— 87,2 and 7.
superiority — vbs. of, with Ace. of Re-
spect, 397.N.2.
superlative— in issimus, 86; in rimus,
87,1; in limus, ib. 3; in entissimus,
ib. 4 and 5; lacking, ib. 9; of parts., 89 ;
of advs., 93; meaning of, varies with
position, 291,B.2,302; strengthened, 303;
with quam, quantum, qul, ib. B.2,642,
GENEKAL INDEX.
539
B.5; with quisque, 318,2; with Part.
Gen., 372; with preps., ib. B.2; with
lit, 642.B.2.
supersedSre— with Abl., 390.2.N.3.
superstes— with Gen. or Dat., 359,B.l.
PUPINE — 112,5; system, 114,3,e; formation
of, 116,3, 121,3; stem, 135; in Abl. of
Sep., 390.3.N.3, 436.N.4 : in Abl. of lie-
spect, 397,1; with opus, 406.N.5; de-
nned, 434; Ace. of, 435; Abl. of, 436.
SUppetiae— defective, 70,B.
supplex— with Dat., 346.N.5.
supplicare— with Dat., 346, it. 2 and N-.4.
supra — with quam after a comparative,
296, N.3; with Abl. of Measure, 403.N.1;
as adv., 415; as prep., 416,25.
surds— 6,2,B.
surname— common, in PI., 290.N.1.
BUS— decl. of, 59.
susce'nse're— with Dat., 346,11.2.
suscipere — with Ace. Ger., 430.N.1.
suspicari — with Ace. and Inf., 527.B.2.
suspicere— with Ace. and Inf., 627.B.1.
suspirare — with Ace. and Inf., 533.B.1.
SUStin6re— with Inf., 423.2.N.2.
SUUS (OS)— 102 ; syntax of, 309; emphatic,
ib. 2 ; with prep, phrases, ib. 4 ; is in-
stead, ib. N.I ; suum quisque, ib. N.3;
suo tempore, ib. 4; with Gen. Ger.,
428.B.1 ; in dependent clauses, 521 j
suom with tit, 657.B.
syllaba anceps — 741.
syllables — division of, 10 ; names for, 11;
open, 11,B.; close, ib.; length of, 12;
common, 13; quantity of final, 707-713 ;
of polysyllables, 707-709 ; of monosyl-
lables, 710-713.
syllepsis — 690.
syuapheia— 728.
syncope — 725-743 ; in Pf. forms, 131, ff.
synecdoche— 695.
synizeais— 727-
syntax— denned, 201.
systole— 722.
T— sound of, 7 ; t-clasa of vbs., 133,m.
tabes— heteroclite, 68,8.
tabo— defective, <70,A.
taedet— with Gen., 377; with pronoun as
subj., 377, B.2.
talcing — vbs. of, with two Aces., 340; End
For Which given by Dat. or ad, ib. B.2 ;
vbs. of Taking Away, with Dat., 347, B. 5 ;
with Ace. Ger., 430-
talaris— ana talarius, 84,2.
talis— with qui or ut and Subjv., 631,1
and B.I.
tarn— with quam, quantum, qui, and
superlative, 303.B.2; with qui or ut and
Subjv., 631,1 and B.I.
tamen — introduces contrast, 307.B.4;
position of, 413.N.3; with sed, 485.N.3 ;
syntax of, 490 ; with at, 488.N.2 ; em-
phasises adversative relation, 587.K.1 ;
with tametsi, 604,8.3.
tametsl— form, 603 and n. ; usage, 604
and BB.
tamquam— with subst., 439, N.I ; with
Subjv. of Comparison, 602; with Indie.,
ib. N.I; to give an Assumed Reason, ib.
N.4 ; with part., 666.N. ; tamquam 81,
602, N. 4; coordinate with sic, 482,3,N.
tanti— as Gen. of Price, 380,1.
tantldem— as Gen. of Price 380,1.
tantus— with qui or ut and Subjv., 631,1
and B.I; tantl, with vbs. of Eating and
Buying, 380 ; tannest, *' *s worth while,
ib. B.I; tantum, with quam, quan-
tum, qui, and superlative, 303, R- 2 ;
tantum, for Abl. of Measure, 413.N.2 ;
non tantum sed, etc., 482, 5 ; tantum
quod, 625,2,N.2; tantum abest ut,
552,B.l.
taste— vbs. of, -with Inner Obj., 333,2,N.5.
teaching — vbs. of, with two Aces., 339 and
NN.2,3.
temperare — with Dat., 346, B.2 and N.2 ;
with ne, 548.N.1 ; temper ans, with
- Gen., 375.N.2.
templum — omitted, 362.B.3.
TEMPOBAL SENTENCES— 559-588 ; division
of, 559 ; moods in, 660; Antecedent Ac-
tion, 561-567; Iterative Action, 666, 667;
Contemporaneous Action, 668-573; Sub-
sequent Action, 674-577; with cum,
678-588 ; general view of, 679 ; Temporal
cum, 580; cum inversum, 581; Explic-
ative cum, 582 ; Conditional cum, 683 ;
Iterative cum, 584 ; Circumstantial
oum, 585-588 ; Historical cum, 685 ;
Cansal cum, 586 ; Concessive cum, 587;
cum— turn, 588 ; in 6. O., 655.
temptare— with inf., 423,2,n.2.
tempus— with Inf. orGer.,428,N.2; tem-
pore or in tempore, 394, B.; id tem-
poris, 336.N.2 ; with Inf., 422.N.2 ;
temperi, 411.N.1.
tendency— suffixes for, 182,3.
540
GENERAL INDEX.
tendere mantis— with Dat., 358.N.3.
tenure— with Pf. part, to denote Main-
tenance of Result, 238 ; memoria
teneo, with Pr. Inf., 281,2,N.; (sg) with
nS, 548.N.1 ; with quSminus, 549 ;
with quill, 665,1; with ut, 653,1 ; tengrl,
•with Gen. of Charge, 378.R.1.
tenses— 112,3; signs of, 114,2; formation
. of, 114, 115, 121 ; syntax of, 222-252 ;
definitions, 223; of continuance, attain-
ment, or completion, 224; Pr., 227-230;
Impf., 231-234 ; PuraPf., 235-238 ; Hist.
Pf., 239, 240; Plupf., 241; Fut., 242,
243; Fut. Pf., 244, 245; periphrastic,
246-251; in Letters, 252; of Indie., 276;
of Impv., 278; Sequence of, 509; in
Final and Consecutive Sentences, 643,
3 ; in Relative Sentences, 622, 623 ; in
O. O., 653-655; in Inf., 279, 653; of
Subjv., 277, 654, 655 ; fiepresentatio,
654, N.
tenus— position of, 413.R.1 ; usage of, as
prep., 417,14. Q
terminatioust of cases— 27.
terra— in Abl. without in, 386.N.1 ; ter-
raeas Loc., 411.B.2.
tertitun— est with ut, 653,4.
tSstis est— with Ace. and Inf., 52^,a.2.
thematic class of verbs — 133,1.
thickness— how expressed, 335.R.1.
thinking— vbs. of, with two Noms., 206;
with Object Sentence and quod, 523,
625,1, N.7; with Inf., 627; vbs. of, at-
tracted into Subjv. after quod, 641.N.3;
vbs. of, with quln, 555,2.
threat— vbs. of, with Inf., 423.N.5.
Tlburl— as Loc., 411, K.I.
time — adjs. of, in pred. attrib., 325.R.6 ;
suffixes for, 182,8; when, in Abl., 393 ;
how long, in Ace., 336; within which, in
Abl., 393; with per, 336, 393.B.1 ; with
tOtuS, ib. R.2; when = for which, ib. K.3;
with hie, ille, ib. B.4; preps, for Abl.,
394 ; lapses of, with cum, 580,B.3; given
by part., 665, 670,1.
timfire— constr. of, 650 and N.I: with
Inf., 423.2.N.2.
timor— est, with inf., 550,N.5 : tim5rem
subesse, with Inf., 533.R.1.
titles— position of, 676, R. 4.
tmesis— 726.
tOtus— decl. of, 76; in pred. attrib., 325,
B.6; with Abl. of Place Where, 388; with
Time How Long, 393.B.2.
towns — with Ace., 337; in Abl. of Place
Where, 386; in Abl. of Place Whence, 391;
in Loc., 411 ; with preps., 337.N.3. 391,
B.I ; with appositives, 337.B.2, 386.R.1,
391.R.1, 411.R.3.
tractatu— asSup., 436.N.
trade — suffixes for, 181,4.
tradere— with Ace. Ger., 430,N.l ; with
Ace. and Inf., 527.B.2.
tradesman— suffixes for, 181,3.
training— vbs. of, with Ablv 401,N.l.
trajection— 696.
trans— in composition, 9,4 ; vbs. cpd.
with take Ace., 331 ; as prep., 416,26.
transitive verb — defined, 213 ; used in-
trans.,i&. R.a:>;
transposition — of consonants, 9,8.
tres— decl. of, 95.
trial— vbs. of, with si, 460,1,6; with im-
plied protasis, 601.
tribes— in Abl. of Origin, 395, N. 2.
tribuere— with ut, 553,2.
tributum — heteroclite, 68,5.
tricorporis— defective, 85,1.
trinl-97,R.3.
tritum— with Inf., 422.N.3.
trochee — shortened by Iambic Law, 717;
trochaic foot, 734; rhythm, 736;
rhythms, 768-776.
tu — decl. of, 101 and N.I; synizesis in, ib.
N.4; with met and -pte, 102.NN.2.3; ves-
trl and vestrum, 304,2 and 3, 364, R.;
poss. pron. for, 304,2,N.2; till, VCStrl,
with Ger., 428.R.1.
tugrl— with Ace. and Inf., 527.R.1.
turn— with subst., 439.N.4 ; with etiam,
478.N.1 ; as coordinating particle, 482,1
and N.I; fum— turn, 482,1 and N.I;
Ctun— turn, 588; correlative of si, 590,
N.I.
tuus (OS)— 101 and N.3 ; tuum with ut,
657.R; tUl with Gen. Ger., 428.R.1.
U— length of Final— 707,6.
ubi — o» soon as, with Indie., 561-563 ;
Causal, with Indie., 564,s. 1.565 and N.I;
with Iterative action, 566, 667 ; with
Subjv., 567.N. ; Conditional, 690,N.3.
Qllus— decl. of, 76 ; and quisquam, 107,
3.N.2, 108; syntax of, 317.
Uls— 416,27.
ulterior— 87,8 ; ultimus in pred. attrib.,
325.B.6.
ultimate — defined, U.
GENERAL INDEX.
541
Ultra— with Abl. of Measure, 403.N.1;
position of, 413.K.1; as adv., 415; as
prep., 416,27.
uncertainty— vbs. of, with quin, 555,2.
understatement— definition of, 700.
undertaking— vbs. of, with Ace. Ger.,430.
unimanus— defective, 85,2.
unlikeness— adjs. of, with atque (ac), 643.
UNREAL CONDITION— 597; with Impf. of
opposition to Past, ib. B.I ; with Indie,
in Apod., ib. EB.2,3 ; in O. O., ib. E.4,
659 ; Apod, in, after vb. requiring
Subjv., 697,B.5; with absque, ib. N.
unus— decl. of, 76, 95.N.1 ; PI. with plu-
ralia tantum, 95, B.I ; as distributive,
97,B.3; with superlative, 303 ; with
quidam, 313,u.3; with quisquam, 317,
l,N.l ; with nem.5, nullus, 317.2.N.3 ; in
pred. attrib., 325, B.G ; with prep, for
Part. Gen., 372.R.2; with qul and
Subjv., 631,1.
unusquisque— 107, 5.
urbs — with name of Town, requires
prep., 337.B.2, 386.E.1, 391.K.1, 411.B.3;
with Appositional Gen., 361,N.l.
urgSrl — with Gen. of Charge, 378.H.1.
urging— vbs. of, with ut, 646.
usque— with Ace. of Motion Whither, 337,
N.4; usage of, as prep., 416,28.
fiSUS— with Abl., 406 ; with other constr.,
ib.fi.5; as pred., ib.; with Pf. part., 406,
437.N.2 ; in phrases with ut, 557,R. ;
usu venit, with ut, 563,3.
ut— in wishes, 261; with quam, to ex-
press disproportion, 298, 631,3,B.l ;
omitted, 298.R.2 ; with potuit, to
strengthen superlative, 303 ; ut— ita,
482,4 ; after vbs. of Adding and Hap-
pening, 525,1,N.5 ; in Final and Con-
secutive Sentences, 543 ; ut non, ib. 4,
645.R.2, 552 ; parenthetical, ib. B.3 ;
ut ng, 545.B.1, 546.B.3 ; after vbs. of
Fear, 560 and N.I ; to add restriction,
552. B.3 ; after vb. of Causation, 553,1 ;
after vbs. of Compelling and Permit-
ting, ib. 2 ; after vbs. of Happening, ib.
3 ; after impersonals, ib. 4 ; Explana-
tory, 557 ; Exclamatory, 658 ; with
magis quam, 557.N.2 ; ut primum, as
soon as, with Indie., 561-563 ; Causal,
664, N.; with Iterative sentences, 666,
667 ; nisi ut, 567.N.2, 591.B.3 ; with el
and Subjv., 602; with Subjv., to give
an Assumed Reason, ib. N.4 ; Conces-
sive, 608 and B.I; with qul, 626,R.l;
after comparatives, 631,3,B.l ; with
quisque and superlative, 642.R.2; pr5
eo ut, as Causal, ib. B.4 ; ut qul, with
superlative, ib. a.5 ; introduces O. O.
after vbs. of Will and Desire, 652.R.1 ;
with part, to give Assumed Reason,
666.N.
fiter, bag— decl. of, 44,2, 45.B.1.
Uter, which — decl. of, 76, 106; quis for,
300.N.; utrum as interrogative parti-
cle, 468 ; in Indirect Question, 460,2,N.
3 ; utrum, whether or no, 459, N. 2.
uterlibet— 108.
uterque— decl. of, 108 ; with PI. vb., 211,
u.l.Ex.a, 292, K. ; to express reciprocal
action, 221, R.I and 2 ; force of, 292 ;
with Part. Gen., 371.E.1.
uterum — heterogeneous, 32,1,N.
utervis— 108.
UtI— with Abl., 407 and N.2,a ; other
constrs. of, ib. N.3 ; with personal Ger.,
427, N.5. 9
utinam — in wishes, 261 aiidN. 1.
utpote— with qul, 626.N.1.
V— and u, 1.B.2 ; pronunciation of, 7.
vacare— with Dat., 346.N.2 ; attraction
of pred. after, 635.R.3.
vacuus— with Gen., 374.N.8.
vae— with Dat., 343,1, N.I.
valde — very, 439.N.3 ; with quam and
Indie., 467.N.
valgre— with Inf., 423.2.N.2; with ut,
653,1.
validus — with Abl. or Gen., 405.N.3.
vas— heteroclite, 68,7.
V6 — usage of, 495 ; ve — V6, *£>• N-2-
vehementer— very, 439.N.3.
vel— with superlative, 303; usage of, 494;
vel — vel, ib. 2 ; for example, ib. N.I ; at
well as, ib. N.3.
velle— conjugation of, 174 ; exact use of
Fut. or Fut. Pf., 242, N. 2 and R.3 ; has
no periphrasis, 248,R., 531,N.3 ; velim,
257,2 ; vellem, as Potential, 268,N. 1 :
vellem, as Unreal, 261.R- ; with Subjv.
for Impv., 270.N.2 ; with Pf. Inf. act.,
280,2, b, and N.I ; with Pf. Inf. pass.,
280,2,c,N. ; vol8ns in pred. attrib.,
325.B.6; sib! velle, 351,N.2; volenti
est, 353.N.2; with luf. or ut, 532, and
N.3, 646, B.I ; with Inf., 423.2.N.2; with
Ut, 646,N.l.
542
GENERAL INDEX.
velut— with Subjv., 602 : with part, to
give Assumed Reason, 666, s.
velutsi— with Subjv., 602.
venalis— with Abl., 404.N.4.
vgndere— with Gen. of Price, 379 ; bene
vgndere, 380,2,B.
venire— omitted, 209.N.5; venit mini
in mentem, with Gen., 376.R.3; with
Sup., 435, N.I ; ventUTUS as adj., 438,
N.; in suspicionem, with Nom. and
Inf., 528.N.2 ; with Inf., 422.N.5 ; usu
venit, with ut, 653,3.
venire— pass, of vEndere, 169,2,R.i ; with
Gen. of Price, 379.
venter— decl. of, 44,2, 45.R.1.
verbals— defined, 179,1; pred. agreement
of, 211; eubst. with Ace., 330.N.3, 337,
K.5; adj. with Ace., ib. N.4; in bilis,
with Dat., 355.N. ; in ax, with Gen.,
375 ; formation of verbalia. 191.
VERBS— defined, 16,4 ; conjugation of, 17 ;
inflection of, 114 ; deponents, 113 ; per-
sonal endings, 1U; regular, 120, ff. ;
classes of, 133 ; Stem or Thematic class,
133,1.; Reduplicated Class, ib. II.;
T-class, ib. in. ; Nasal class, ib. IV. ; In-
choative class, ib. V.; i-class, t'6. VI. ;
mixed class, ib. VII. ; listof, 137-162; De-
ponents, 163-166 ; Semi-deponents, 167;
Irregular, 168-174; Defective, 175 ; form-
ation of, 190 200; division of, 190 ; Ver-
balia, 191 ; Denominative, 192 ; com-
position of, 199, 200 ; Impersonal, 208 ;
intrans. used personally, ib. 2; Concord
of, 210, 211, 285-287 ; trans, and in-
traus., 213 ; trans, used as intrans.,
ib. R.a ; intrans. used as trans., ib.
B.6.
verbum— with Appositional Gen., 361,1 ;
in phrases with ut, 546.N.2.
verSri— coustr. with, 550 and N.I ; veri-
tusasPr., 282.N. ; with Inf., 423,2,s.2,
533.R.1.
v6risimile— in phrases with Inf., 422.N.
3 ; in phrases with ut, 553,4.
vSro— position of, 413.N.3 ; yes, 471,a,l ;
with atque, 477.N.2 ; with sed,485,N.3 ;
syntax of, 487 ; with nisi, 591.B.4 ; with
Bin, 592.
verse— 745 ; methods of combining, 746 ;
Italic, 755 ; Saturnian, 756 ; compound,
820, 823.
versification — 729-823; anacrustic scheme
of, 738.
versus— position of, 413.R.1; usas
prep., 416,29 ; versus Italicus—755.
vertere— with Final Dat., 356.B.2.
V§rum— introduces contrast to dein|f :ffi
strative, 307.B.4 ; yes, 471.a,l: >
etiam, 482,5 and N.I; syntax of,
with Inf., 422.N.3 ; with ut, 553,4.
very— translations of, 439.N.3.
vesci— with Abl., 407 and u.2,e ; i
personal Ger, 427.N.5.
vesper— decl. 01, 68,10 ; in Abl. of TIL
393.K.5; vesperi— 37,5, 4U.N.1.
vester— 101 and u.3.
vetare— with Ace., 346.N.3 ; with IL
423,2,NN.3 and 6, 532.N.1 and 2.
vetus — decl. of, 82,2; comp. of, 87,1,K.'|
via— as Abl. of Manner, 399, N.I.
vicissim— gives reciprocal relation, 2<J
R.2 ; as coordinating particle, 482J
N.2.
vidSre — with Ace. and Inf., 527.B.2 ; wil
Ut, 546.N.1; with n6, 548.N.1 ; wij
Direct Question, 467.N. ; with td
Noms. in pass., 206 ; vidSrl, and v|
dStur, 628.B.2 ; vide, with Subjv. f,|
Impv., 271.N.2, 548, N.3; viderls,
Impv., 245, N.
vflis— with Abl. of Price, 404.N.2.
vincere— with Abl. of Respect, 397,N.2|
causam, 333.2. it.
violentus— and violSns, 84,1.
VIJTUS— defective, 70, C.
ViS— 70,D; with PI. vb., 211,R.l,Ex.a; vi]
as Abl. of Manner, 399, N.I.
-vis— with relatives, 111,3.
vitium— with Epexegetical Gen., 361,2 j
with Inf., 422, N. 2 ; vitiO as Abl. o|
Manner, 399.N.1.
vivere— with Abl., 407,N.2,e.
[vix]— 70,D; tuam vicem, 334.B.2.
VOCATIVE— defined, 23,5 ; in I? 33, B.2 ;
adjs. of 1st and 2d Decl., 73; no synta:
of, 201,a.l ; Nom. instead, ib. B.2 ; ii
app., ib. B.3 ; in pred., 211, R. 3 ; Sg
with PI. vb., ib. N.2; Nom. instead, 321
N.I; in pred. app., 325, B.I ; with 5 or|
pro, 343,l,».l.
voice-112,2, 212; act., 213; pass., 214 ;|
middle, 212.N.
VOluntas— iu phrases with ut, 546,N.2;
voluntateas Abl. of Manner, 399.N.1.
volup — indeclinable, 85,C.
vomer— decl. of, 45,s.2.
vowels— 2 ; sounds of, 3 ; phonetic varia-
GENERAL INDEX.
543
ions in, 8 ; weakening of, ib. 1 ; oinis-
,1011 of, ib. 2 ; epenthesis of, ib. 3 ;
issimilation of, ib. 4 ; quantity of final,
'07 ; suffixes with, 184.
5— with Appositioual Gen., 361,1.
•go— as Abl. of Manner, 399.N.1.
tus— lieteroclite, 68,5.
JM(— vbs. of, with Abl., 405 ; adjs. of,
with Gen. and Abl., ifc.N.3.
vrning— vbs. of, with ut, 546.
jakening of vowels— 8,1, 701.B.2.
right— substs. of, with Gen., 369.
Itt— vbs. of, with Inf., 280,2,c, 423,2, 532;
sequence after vbs. of, 516, B. 3 ; ut in-
stead of Inf. after, 632.N.1-4; with Final
sentence, 546 ; with Inf. instead, ib. R.I ;
with simple Subjv., ib. B.2.
wishes— in Subjv., 260, 261 ; apodosis
omitted with, 601.
without— translated by ut n5n, 552,R.4;
quin, 556 ; cum non, 587.B.2.
wonder— constr. with vbs. of, 542.N.1.
words— Formation of, 176-200.
Y— 1.B.3; length of final, 707,3.
yes— trans, of, 471, a and c.
yielding — vbs. of, with Dat., 346.
Z— when introduced, 1.B.3 ; sound of,
ib. N.
zeugma— 690.
SYNTAX OF INDIVIDUAL AUTHORS.
The syntactical usage of individual authors is treated as follows:
ccros— 358.N.1; 625,l,N.l.
FB ANIUS — 498, N.I.
PULEITJS— 336,N.l ; 365,N.; 406.N.3; 498,
N.I ; 691.N.3; 607.N.3 ; 626.N.1.
AELITJS— 574.N.
AESAB— 208.2.N.2 ; 209,N.5 ; 228.N.1 ; 239,
N.; 250,N.land 2; 260; 280,2,c,N.; 285,
N.2; 286,3,N.; 311.1.B.2 ; 323,N.l ; 324;
335.N.; 336,N.2;337,N.l; 341.N.2; 349.B.5;
354.N.2; 356.N.2 and 3; 358.N.3; 359.N.1;
369.N.2; 372.N.2 and 3; 374.N.1 and 9;
375.N.2; 381.N.4; 386.N.; 391,N.;395,N.2;
401.N.7; 407,N.2,d; 410.N.4; 413.B.1; 415;
416,2,3,8,15,16,19,22, and 24 ; 418,2; 422,
N.2; 423.N.2 and 3; 427.N.2; 429.N.1; 432,
N.I; 435.N.2; 436.N.1 ; 443.N.3; 458.N.1;
460,2,N.land 2; 467.N.; 475.N.3; 476.N.5;
478.N.2 ; 480.N.2 and 3; 482,3; 482,5,B.2
and N.I; 496.N.1; 503; 512, N. 1 ; 513.N.1
and 2; 525,2,N.3; 527.B.3; 528, N. 1 ; 538,
N.4;541,N.land3;642,N.l; 545,8.1; 549.N.
1 and 2 ; 563.N.2 and 3 ; 667.N. ; 569.N.1 ;
671.N.3; 691,8.2 and N.2; 602.N.5; 615.N.;
616,l,N.l ; 626.N.1; 627,8.2; 636.N.1; 644,
B.3; 647.N.2; 650.N.; 666.N.
B. Hisp.— 407,N.2,d; 416,8.
Ft. Afr.— 407,N.2,<i ; 417,7.
CATO— 285.N.2; 394,3,N.l; 401.N.7; 407.N.2;
417,7; 418,4 ; 437.N.2; 477.N.5; 548,N.3;
574.N.
CATULLUS- 207.N.; 236.N.; 380:417,3; 454,
N.2; 455.N.; 458, N. 1 ; 477.N.5; 480.N.3;
546,N.3;567,N;644,N.2.
CELSUS— 602.N.4.
CICEBO— 204.N.7 ; 206.N.1; 809.N.3 and 5 ;
211.B.4 and N.3; 214.B.2 ; 828.N.1 ; 239,
N.; 242.B.3; 245,N.; 250.N.1 and 2 ; 252,
N.; 264.B.6 and NN.1,2 ; 257.N.1 ; 261 ;
269; 271.2.N.2; 280,2,c,N.; 285, N.2;
293.N. ; 298.N.1 ; 299.N.1 ; 301 ; 311,
1.B.2 ; 318.N.1 ; 319.N.2 ; 323.N.1 ; 324 ;
336.N.2 ; 337.N.1.2, and 4 ; 341.N.2 ;
343.N.1 ; 346.N.1 and 2 ; 347.B.2 ; 349,
544
GENERAL INDEX.
E.5; 361.N.1 ; 352.N.; 354.N.2; 356.R.3
and N.3 ; 357; 358.N.3 and 5 ; 361. N.I ;
362.N.1 ; 364.N.1; 369, N.2 ; 372.N.2 and 3 ;
374,N.1,2,4, and 5 ; 375.N.2 and 3 ; 376.R.
1,2, and 3; 380.1.N.1 and 4; 383.N.1; 385,
N.I; 386.N.; 390,2,N.2 and 3; 391.N.; 395,
N.I and 2; 396.N.1; 398.N.1; 403.N.4; 406,
N.6 ; 407,N.2,d ; 410.N.4 ; 411.R.1 and 2,
and N.I; 413.R.1 ; 416,1,2,3,5,7,13,14,15,
16,19,24,25,28, and 29 ; 417.1.N.3 and 14 ;
418,4; 422.N.2.3, and 5 ; 423,N.2and3;
427.N.2 and 5 ; 428,B.2 and N.I; 429.N.1;
432.N.1 ; 435.N.1 ; 436.N.1; 438.N.; 439.N.
2,3 and 4 ; 443.N.3 ; 453, N.I ; 457,l,N.l
and 2, 2 and N.; 458.N.1 ; 459.N.1 ; 460,1,
N.2 ; 467.N. ; 476.N.5 ; 477.N.4 and 5; 478,
N.2 ; 480.K.1 and N.3 ; 481.N.; 482.1.N.1
and 2, 2, 3, and 5, n.2 and N.I ; 484.N.1
and 2; 485,N.l and 2; 486,N.; 488,N.land
2; 489.N.1; 491,N.; 493.N.1 ; 494.N.1;
495; 496.N.1; 497; 498,N.3,4,G and 8; 501;
603 ; 511,B.4 ; 513.B.1 and NN.1,2 ; 525,1,
N.I and 4, 2.N.2 and 3 ; 527.B.1 and 3,
and N.2 ; 628.N.1 and 2 ; 532.N.1 and 3;
633.R.1; 536.N.1; 538.N.4; 541,N.1,2,3 and
5; 542,R. and N.I ; 543.N.3 ; 548.N.3 ; 549,
N.1,2 and 4; 550,N.1,2 and 5; 653,1; 555,
B.I ; 563,N.2,3,4 and 5 ; 567.N.; 569.N.1;
671,N.2and3; 573.N.2 ; 574.N.; 576.N.1;
677.N.4 and 5 ; 580,N.3 ; 590.N.1; 691.R.4
and N.2; 602,N.5 ; 604,B.2; 605.N.; 606,N.
1; 608; 615.N.; 616,1,N.2, and 2, N.; 617,
N.I; 626.N.1; 627,B.land2; 635,N.land
2 ; 636.N.1 ; 643.N.4 ; 644.B.3 ; 647.N.2;
666,N.; 677.N.
COLUMELLA— 592, N.
COBNIFICTOS — 439, N.3 ; 500,B.; 549,N.4.
CUBTIUS— 416,16 ; 532.N.1.
DICTYS — 545.K.1.
ENNIUS — 411.B.2 ; 478.N.5.
FLOBUS — 467.N ; 525.2.N.2.
FBONTO— 525,2,N.3.
GAIUS— 625,2,N.3.
GELLTOS— 580, N.3.
HIBTIUS— 423.N.2 : 532.N.1.
HORACE— 211,B.l, Ex.a.N.; 271.2.N.2 ; 301 ;
346.N.2; 361.N.1; 416,5.17,19, and 21;
417,8 ; 418,4 ; 421,N.l,c ; 422.N.4 ; 427.N.
2; 439.N.3; 454.N.2 ; 457.N.2; 458.N.1
and 2 ; 460.2.N.3 ; 477.N.8 ; 480.N.1 ; 482,
V3; 498.N.1 ; 500.B.; 525,l,N.l, 2.N.2 ; 533,
R.I ; 536.N.1 ; 538.N.5 ; 641.N.5 ; 563.N.3;
569.N.1 ; 591.B.2 ; 592.N. ; 616.1.N.2 ; 644,
N.2.
JUVENAL— 602.N.4 ; 605.N.
LIVY— 204.N.8 ; 209.N.3; 211,R.l,Ex.a,N.;
247.N.1 ; 249.N.; 250,N.land 2; 285, Ex.
3 and N.2 ; 293.N. ; 3U,1,R.2, 2,N.: 317.N.
1; 319.N.1; 323, N. 1 ; 335.N. ; 337.N.4;
338.N.1; 346.N.2; 347.B.2; 350,1,N.; 351,
N.I ; 353.N.2 ; 356.N.2 ; 359.N.1 and 4 ;
363.R.1 ; 366.B.1; 371.N.; 372,N.laud4;
373.R.1 ; 374,N.2and 3; 383.N.1 ; 385.N.
1 ; 390.2.N.3 ; 391.R.1 and N.; 395.N.1 ;
399.N.1 and 3 ; 401.N.2 and 6 ; 403.N.3 ;
406.N.3; 410.N.2.3, and 4; 411.B.1 and
N.I ; 413.N.1 ; 415 ; 416,2,7,15,16,22,23,
24, and 28 ; 417,1,8,10,11, and 14 ; 418,2,
and 4 ; 423,N.2 ; 427.N.2 ; 429,2 and N.I;
430.N.1 ; 435,N.2 ; 436,N.l ; 437.N.2 ; 438,
N. ; 439.x. 3 and 4 ; 442.N.3 ; 443.N.4 ;
457,1,N.3 ; 458,N.l ; 460,2,N.3 ; 467.N. ;
477,N.4,5 and 9 ; 478,N.l and 2 ; 480.N.3 ;
482,1,N.1,2 and 5,R.2 and N.I; 497 ; 498,
N.1,3, and 8 ; 502.N.3 ; 503 ; 513,N.l and
2 ; 525,l,N.l and 7 and 2.N.2 ; 632,N.l ;
636.N.1 ; 641,N. 2 and 5 ; 642,B. and N.2;
643,N.3 ; 545.B.1 ; 549.N.1 ; 550,N.5 ; 655,
2,N. ; 657.B. and N.2 ; 563,N.2, 3, and 5 ;
667,N.; 569,N.l; 570.N.4 ; 671,N.6 ; 676,
N.2 ; 577,N.3,4, and 5 ; 597,B.5 ; 602.N.5;
615,N. ; 616,l,N.l and 2, and 2,N.; 626,N.
1 ; 635.N.2 ; 636.N.1 ; 644.R.3 ; 651.B.1 ;
666.N. ; 687.
LUCAN— 254,N.l ; 468,N.l.
LUCILICS— 383.1.N.2; 486,N.l.
LUCBETIUS— 372,N.2 ; 383,1, N.2 ; 405,N.3 ;
406,N.6 ; 422,N.4 ; 459.N.1 ; 480.N.2 ; 482,
l,N.l ; 496.N.1 ; 500.B. ; 525,l,N.l ; 533,
B.1 ; 564,N.l ; 571.N.4 ; 606.N.1 ; 636.N.1.
MARTIAL— 280,2,6,N.l.
NAEVIUS— 633,N.l.
NEPOS— 249,N. ; 250,N.2 ; 356.R.3 ; 408,N.2,
c ; 416,10 ; 513.N.1 ; 536.N.1 ; 655,2,N. ;
571,N.4 ; 605,N. ; 606,N.l ; 687.
OVID— 270.N.; 280,2,6,N.l ; 349.R.5; 364,
N.1;401,N.7; 411.R.2; 416,7; 417,7; 427,
N.2; 494,N.3; 625, I,N; 545,B.l; 616.N.2.
GENERAL INDEX.
545
PETRONIUS— 207,N. ; 625,l,N.l.
PLAUTUS— 206.N.1 ; 211,R.l, Ex.a.N.; 270,
N.I ; 330.N.3 ; 336,N.l ; 347,R.2 ; 357,N ;
358,N.l ; 361,N.l ; 374,N.1,2,3, and 5;
375,N.3 ; 383,1,N.2, and 3 ; 398:N.2 ; 406,
N.6 ; 407.N.2 ; 411,R.l ; 415 ; 416,6,7,16,
19,21, and 24; 417,7; 418,4; 422,N.2 ;
439,N.3; 454.N.2; 4S5,N.; 467,N.; 476.N.
Sand 5 ; 477,N. 1 and 6 ; 478.N.2 ; 487,
N.I ; 494,N.l and 6 ; 496,N.l ; 498.N.3 ;
602,N.3 ; 525,1,N.4 and 2.N.2 ; 533,K.l ;
638,N.l and 3 ; 541,N.l ; 645,R.l ; 646,
N.3 ; 648,N.3 ; 649,N.2 ; 563,N.3 ; 569,N.
1;571,N.5; 576,N.l ; 577.N.5 ; 580,N.l
and 3 ; 597,N.; 602,N.5 ; 610,N.l ; 615,N.;
626,N.l ; 643.N.3 ; 677,s.
PLINY MAJOR— 381.N.3 ; 398.N.2; 460,2,N.3;
467.N.; 482,2; 498.1.N.1; 592.N.
PUNY MINOR— 209.N.5 ; 262.N.; 418,4; 460,
2.N.3; 638.N.5; 548.N.3; 602.N.4; 605.N.;
616.1.N.2.
POLLIO— 410, N.3.
PROPERTIUS — 406.N.3; 421,N.l,c ; 457.1.N.2;
458.N.1; 480,N.2aud3; 498.N.1.
QUADRIGABIUS — 407,N.2,b.
QUINTILIAN— 359.N.5 ; 406.N.3; 612.N.1 ;
525,2,N.2; 538.N.5; 602.N.4; 604.R.2;
627.R.1.
SALLUST— 207,N.; 208,2,N.2 ; 247.N.1; 260,
N.I; 280,2,c,N.; 285.N.2; 286,3,N.; 311,1,
R.2; 323.N.1; 338,N.l; 347.R.2 ; 349.R.4;
353.N.2 ; 356.N.3 ; 359.N.1 and 6 ; 369.N.
2 ; 372.N.2 and 3 ; 374,N.1,3, and 8 ; 390,
3.N.1; 391.N.; 407,N.2,d; 410,N.l,2and 4;
416,2,4,7,16,20 and 24 ; 417,7; 418,4; 423,
N.2; 428,R.2; 436.N.2 ; 436.N.1 ; 437.N.2;
439.N.3; 460.2.N.1; 467.N.; 476.N.3; 476,
N.5; 478.N.2; 480.N. 3; 482,3 and 5.R.2 arid
N.1;488,N.2; 491.N.; 496.N.1 ; 601; 503;
612.N.1; 513.N.1; 625,2,N.2; 532.N.1 ; 536,
N.l;638,N.l; 541,N. 2and3; 542.N.1; 545,
R.I; 548.N.3 ; 563.N.2 ; 569.N.1 ; 591.R.2 ;
604.R.2; 616,l,N.l and 2 ; 626.N.1 ; 636,
N.I.
SENECA— 374.N.3 ; 616.1.N.2 ; 635,N.2.
SENECA RHETOR — 44.5, N.
SUETONIUS — 349.R.5; 407,N.2.c ; 416,22;
513.N.1; 642.R. ; 646.N.3; 677. N.5; 602,
N.4; 665,N.2.
TACITUS— 208.2.N.2 ; 209.N.3; 211,R.l,Ex.
o,N.; 254.N.1; 285,Ex.3 and N.2; 346.N.
35
3; 353,N.2; 354.N.2; 356,N.2; 359,N.5; 364,
N.I ; 372.N.2 ; 376.R.1 ; 390.3.N.1 ; 401.N.6
and 7 ; 407,N.2,a ; 410,N.2and 4 ; 411,N.
1; 416,10.16,23 and 24; 417,3 and 12;
423.N.3; 428.R.2 and N.4 ; 432,N.l; 437,
N.2- 442, N.3; 443.N.4 ; 460.2.N.3; 476,
N.I ; 476.N.5 ; 477,N.4 ; 480.N.3 ; 482,2,3
and 5.N.1 ; 484.N.2 ; 493.N.2 ; 496.N.1 ;
497 ; 513.N.1 ; 525,1,N.7, and 2,N.2and3;
532.N.1 ; 538.N.5 ; 542.R. and N.I ; 546,
N.3; 563,N.2,3 and 5; 567,N. ; 569,.\.l;
571,N.land 3; 673,N.l; 675.N.2 ; 676.N.
1 ; 602,N.4 ; 604.R.2 ; 605,N. ; 616,1,N.2;
635.N.2; 647,N.2; 666,N.; 687.
TERENCE— 211,R.l,Ex.o,N. ; 271,N.2 ; 286,
N.2 ; 337.N.4 ; 358.N.1 ; 361.N.1 ; 383,1,
N.2; 399,N.l ; 407,N.2 ; 4U.R.2 ; 415; 416,
1,8, and 28; 423,N.2 ; 428,R.2; 439,R.3 ;
454,N.2 ; 455,N.; 482,5,R.2 ; 487,N.l ; 489,
N. ; 494,N.l ; 496,N.l and 2 ; 498 N.3 ; 602,
N.3 ; 525,l,N.l ; 533,R.l ; 641,N.l ; 645,
R.I ; 649.N.2 ; 669.N.1 ; 571,N.4 ; 674.N. ;
676.N.1 ; 578,N. ; 680,N.l and 3 ; 597,
N. ; 610,N.l ; 615.N. ; 626.N.1 ; 644,N.2 ;
677,N.
TIBULLUS — 455,N. : 457,1,N.2 ; 468.N.1 :
498.N.1.
VALERIUS MAXIMUS — 285,N.2 ; 432,N.l ;
460,2,N.3 ; 538.N.5 ; 577,N.5.
VARUO— 416,7,15, and 23 ; 422,N.4 ; 427.N.
2 ; 437,N.2 ; 449,R.3 ; 574,N. ; 606,N.l.
VATINIUS — 606,N. 1 .
VELLEIUS— 209,N.5 ; 285,N.2 ; 349,R.5 ; 391,
N.; 460,2,N.3; 513,N.2.
VERGIL — 211.R.l,Ex.a,N. ; 230,N.2 ; 269;
276,2,N.2 ; 301 ; 336,N.l ; 346.N.2 ; 374,
N.3 ; 383,1,N.2 and 3 ; 390,2,N.4 ; 411.R.
2 ; 417,3 ; 421,N.l,c ; 422,N.4 ; 442,N.3 ;
443,N.l ; 458,N.3 ; 477,N.5 ; 480,N.2 ; 482,
l,N.l and 2 ; 486,N,3 ; 526,l,N.l ; 542,N.
1; 546,N.3; 563,N.2 ; 591,R.2; 644,N.2.
VITRUVIUS— 353,N.l ; 386,N.; 416,5 and 25;
418,3 ; 439.N.3 ; 636,N.l ; 649.N.2 ; 671,
N.4.
THE HISTORIANS— 209, N. 5 ; 211,R.l,Ex.& ;
214,R.2; 363,R.l ; 391,N. ; 484,N.2 ; 485,
N.I; 487,N.l; 491; 501.N.; 567,N.; 628,R.
THE POETS— 211,R.l,Ex.a,N. and R.4; 217,
N.I and 2; 230,N.2 ; 241,N.l ; 261 ; 269 ;
270; 271,2,N.2 ; 280,2,6 and N.2; 290,N.
2 ; 295,N.; 296,N.1,3, and 4 ; 321.N.1; 332,
2.N.2 and 3 ; 333,2,N.6 ; 336.N.3 ; 337,N.
546
GENERAL INDEX.
1 and 2 ; 338,N.l and 2 ; 346.N.6 ; 350,1,
N.; 351,N.l ; 352,N. ; 354,N.2 ; 358; 361,
N.I ; 362,N.l ; 373,B.l ; 374,N. 1,3,6,8, and
10 ; 375 ; 383,l,N.l ; 385.N.1 ; 386,N.; 390,
3.N.1 and 2; 391,N.; 394,3,N.l ; 396.N.1
and 3; 397.N.2 ; 401,N.4and 6 : 404,u.l;
407,N.2,e ; 413,B.l and 3, and N.I ; 416,
14, and 20 ; 417,5,12, and 24 ; 418,3 and
4; 421,N.l; 427.N.5 ; 428,N.2 and 3;
435,N.l ; 436,N.l and 3 ; 437,N.l ; 439,N.
2; 440.E.; 446,N.2 ; 449,n.3 ; 454,N.3 ;
457,1,N.3; 460,2,N.2 ; 467,N.; 476.N.2.3,
and 5 ; 477.N.4 ; 482,3 ; 488,N.l and 2;
495,N.2 ; 496.N.1 ; 498,N.l and 5 ; 502.N.
1; 626,1,N.7; 527,N.2; 532.N.1 and 6;
535,B.3 ; 536.X.2 ; 538,x.5 ; 546,B.2 and
N.3 ; 552.B.2 ; 591,N.2 ; 604,B.2 ; 617.N.
2 ; 631,2,N.l ; 683.
THE Cosnc POETS — 211,B.l,Ex.a,N.; 228,
N.I; 242.N.2; 243; 244.N.1 ; 247.N.2 ;
263,2,N.; 267,N.; 269; 280,2,c.N.; 346.N.1;
351.N.1; 406.N.2; 416,4; 443.N.4 ; 453,
N.I and 2; 467.N.; 468.N.; 477.N.3 ; 553,1;
617.N.2.
LATEB PBOSE — 211,B.l,Ex.a,N.; 217.N.1
and 2; 221,8.2; 269; 361.N.1; 372.N.3;
374.N.1 and 3; 375; 386.N.; 390,2,N.3;
404.N.1; 413.N.1; 415; 416, 20, 23,25, and
27: 417,5; 427.N.5; 428.N.1, 2, and 3;
449.R.3; 460,l,a; 467,N.; 476.N.5; 477.N.
4; 528.B.2 and N.4; 535, K. 3; 538.N.5;
546,8.2; 555,2,N. ; 589.N.1.
ANTECLASSICAL LATIN— 211.N.1 and 2; 220,
N.2; 221.R.2; 241,N.l; 248.N.1; 254.N.2;
257.N.1; 260; 261.N.2; 271.1.N.1 and 2,
and 2.N.1 and 2; 272,3,N.; 280,2,a.B.2;
293. N.; 296. N.I: 301; 303; 309,N.2; 319,
N.I; 330.N.2; 339.N.1; 341.N. % 346.N.2;
347.B.1; 350.1.N.; 373,8.1; 374,N.4;375,
N.2 ; 3834.N.2; 385.N.2; 390,2,N.l; 390,
N.3; 391,8.2 and N.; 395.N.2; 397.N.2;
399.N.1; 403.N.3; 407.N.2; 408.N.6; 410,
N.1,4, and 5; 413,8.1; 416, 10, 12, 16, 23,
24, and 27; 417,2,9, and 10; 421.N.1;
422.N.2 and 4; 423, N.2 and 3; 427.N.2;
428.N.1; 429.N.1; 430. N.I: 432.N.1; 433,
N.2; 436,N.l and 4; 437.N.2; 439,N.3; 442,
N.3; 443.N.1 and 4; 444,1,N.2; 454,N.l and
5;456,N.;457,1,N.1,2, and 3, and 2,N.;
459.N.2; 475.N.1; 476,N.1,2, and 5; 479,
N.I; 480.N.1; 482,l,N.l, and 5.N.1; 487,
N.2; 488,N.l; 495,N.l; 498,N.5,6,and 7;
500; 503; 513.N.1; 525,l,N.2,6,and7, and
2.N.2, and 3; 627,8.3; 528,N.l; 636,N.l;
537,N.2; 541.N.5; 542,B. and N.2; 546,
N.3; 549,N.4; 550,N.l and 2; 553,3,N.;
557,B.; 563,N,1,2, and 5; 564,N.l; 571,
N.2,3, and 5; 574,N.; 576.N.1; 677,N.l;
680,N.3; 591,8.2 and N.2; 602,N.5; 614,
N.; 617,N.land2; 626.N1. and 2; 627,
B.l;634,N.;636,N.l; 651,B.l.
CLASSICAL LATIN— 220,N,1 ; 241.N.1 : 260 ;
263.2.N.; 269 ; 270,N. ; 282.N.; 285, Ex.3 :
301:303; 309.N.2; 318,N.2;830,N.2; 339,
N.I and 4; 342 ; 343.N.1; 346,N.2; 347.B.1;
348.B.2; 356,8.2; 359.N.4; 363.N.; 374,
N.1,2,3,4, 5, and 9 ; 381.S.1 ; 383,1 ; 385,
B.I and N.I, 2, and 3 ; 390,2,N.l, and 2 ;
391.B.1 ; 393,8.5 ; 394.N.1 ; 398 ;399,N.l:
401.N.2 and 6 ; 403.N.3 and 4 ; 407.N.2;
408.N.6 ; 410.N.1.2.5 and 6; 413,8.3; 416,
9,12,16,23, and 29 ; 417,9 and 11 ; 421.N.
1 and 2 ; 422.N.4 ; 423.N.4 ; 429,1 and 2;
430.N.1; 432.N.1; 437,1; 438.N.; 439.N.3;
442.N.3 ; 444.1.N.2 ; 449.B.3 ; 460,l,N.l,
and 2, N.3; 467.N.; 475.N.2: 477.N.8; 479,
N.I; 482,4,N.; 494.N.2 andS; 498. N.3 and
4; 500,8.; 501.N.; 502.N.1; 603;5U,B.l; .
525,l,N.l ; 528.B.2, and N.I ; 632.N.1.3,
and 4; 535,8.3; 537.N.2; 538.N. 2 and 3 ;
541,N.land2; 545,8.1; 546,N.3; 549.N.1;
556; 571.N.2; 602,N.l; 610.N.1 ; 631,3,B.
1; 643.N.3: 644,8.3; 651,8.1.
POST-CLASSICAL LATIN— 211,8.2 ; 239, K. ;
241.N.2; 247.N.1; 251.N.2; 254,8.6, and
N.2; 257.N.1; 271.2.N.2; 292,N.; 296.N.
land 2; 298.N.1; 299.N.2 ; 301; 309,
N.2 ; 319.N.1 ; 330.N.4 ; 333,2,N.6 ; 337,
N.I and 2 ; 338.N.2 ; 339, N.I and 3 ;
346, N.2; 349,8.5; 355, N. ; 356,8.3;
362.N.1 and 2; 366,8.2 ; 374,N.2and 3;
378,8.4 ; 380,1,N.2 ; 390,3,N.l ; 391,x. ;
393,8.5; 397.N.2; 398.N.1: 399,N.2: 403,
N.4; 405.N.3; 407.N.2; 408.N.6 ; 410.N.1,
2,3, and 5 ; 411,8.1; 415 ; 416,7,10,12,14,
16,17,18, and 22; 417,7; 418,4; 422.N.2.4,
and 5 ; 423,N.2 and 3 ; 431.N.1 and 3;
432.N.1 ; 433; 435.N.1; 436. N.I: 437.N.1;
438,N. ; 439,N.2 and 3 ; 479,N.l and 2 ;
480,N.l ; 482,l,N.l and 2, 3,4,N., and.6,
N.I and 2 ; 494,N.2 ; 498,N.1,3,6, and 8 ;
503 ; 513, N.2 ; 525,1,N.7, and 2.N.2; 528,
B.2; 532,N.l; 541.N.1; 543,N.3; 545,B.l;
546,N.3; 549,N.2; 553,2,N. and 4,8.2;
557,N.2 ; 563,N.4and 5; 573.N.2 ; 576,N.
2; 590,N.l ; 595,8.6; 602.N.5; 605,N.;
606,N.l ; 616,2,N.; 625,1,B. and 2,8.; 626,
N.I ; 669 ; 677,N.
WORKS ON LATIN GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION.
LATIN PHRASE BOOK. By C. MEISSNER. Translated by
H. W. AUDEN, M.A. Globe 8vo. 4s. 6d.
A GRAMMAE OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE, from Plautus
to Suetonius. By H. J. ROBY, M.A. Part I. Sounds, Inflections,
Word- formation, Appendices. Crown 8vo. 9s. Part II. Syntax,
Prepositions, etc. 10s. 6d.
SCHOOL LATIN GRAMMAR. By H. J. ROBY, M.A. Crown
8vo. 5s.
AN ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR. By H. J. ROBY,
M.A., and Professor A. S. WILKINS, LittD. Globe 8vo. 2s. 6d.
EXERCISES ON LATIN SYNTAX AND IDIOM. Arranged
with reference to Roby's School Latin Grammar. ByE. B.ENGLAND,
Litt.D. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d. KEY, for Teachers only. 2s.6d.net.
FIRST LATIN GRAMMAR. By M. C. MACMILLAN, M.A.
Fcap. 8vo. Is. 6d.
LATIN GRAMMAR. By Professor B. L. GILDERSLEEVE and
GONZALEZ LODGE. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s.
LATIN ACCIDENCE AND EXERCISES, arranged for
Beginners. By W. WELCH and C. G. DUFFIELD. Pott 8vo. Is. 6d.
EXERCISES IN UNSEEN TRANSLATION IN LATIN.
. By the Same. Pott 8vo. Is. 6d.
MACMILLAN'S LATIN COURSE:—
FIRST PART. By A. M. COOK, M.A., Assistant Master at St.
Paul's School. Globe 8vo. 3s. 6d.
SECOND PART. By A. M. COOK, M. A., and W. E. P. PANTIN.M. A.
New and Enlarged Edition. Globe 8vo. 4s. 6d.
THIRD PART. By W. E. P. PANTIN, M.A. Globe 8vo. 3s. 6d.
KEY, for Teachers only. Globe 8vo. 4s. 6d. net.
MACMILLAN'S SHORTER LATIN COURSE:—
FIRST PART. By A. M. COOK, M.A. Globe 8vo. Is. 6d. KEY,
for Teachers only. 4s. 6d. net.
SECOND PART. By A. M. COOK, M.A., and W. E. P. PANTIN,
M.A. Globe 8vo. 2s. KEY, for Teachers only. 4s. 6d. net.
The Third Part of the LATIN COURSE is also intended to form
the concluding volume of the SHORTER LATIN COURSE.
MACMILLAN'S LATIN READER. A Latin Reader for the
Lower Forms in Schools. By H. J. HARDY, M.A. Globe 8vo. 2s. 6d.
SHORT EXERCISES IN LATIN PROSE COMPOSI-
TION AND EXAMINATION PAPERS IN LATIN GRAM-
MAR. By Rev. H. BELCHER, LL.D.
PART I. Pott 8vo. Is. 6d. KEY, for Teachers only. Pott 8vo.
3s. 6d. net.
PART II. On the Syntax of Sentences, with an Appendix, including
Exercises in Latin Idioms, etc. Pott 8vo. 2s. KEY, for Teachers
only. Pott 8vo. 3s. net.
SERMO LATINUS. A Short Guide to Latin Prose Composition.
By Prof. J. P. POSTGATE, LittD. Globe 8vo. 2s. 6d. KEY to
"Selected Passages." Globe 8vo. 4s.6d.net.
MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON.
728050
WORKS OH LATIN GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION.
LATIN PASSAGES FOR TRANSLATION. For the use of
Higher Forms in Schools and of Students working for Pass Degrees.
Selected by M. ALFORD. Globe 8vo. 3s.
FIRST STEPS TO LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. By
Rev. G. RUST, M.A. Pott 8vo. Is. 6d. KEY, for Teachers only.
By W. M. YATES. Pott 8vo. 3s. 6d. net.
LATIN PROSE AFTER THE BEST AUTHORS : Caesarian
Prose. By F. P. SIMPSON, B.A. Extra fcap. 8vo. 2s. 6d. KBY
for Teachers only. Globe 8vo. 5s. net.
LATIN PROSE EXERCISES BASED UPON CJSSAR'E
GALLIC WAR. With a Classification of Caesar's Chief Phrases
and Grammatical Notes on Caesar's Usages. By CLEMENT BRYANS
M.A. Globe 8vo. 2s. 6d. KEY, for Teachers only. GlobeSvo. 4s.6d.net
HINTS TOWARDS LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. Bj
A. W. POTTS, M.A., LL.D., late Fellow of St. John's College,
Cambridge. Extra fcap. 8vo. 3s.
PASSAGES FOR TRANSLATION INTO LATIN PROSE.
Edited with Notes and References to the above. By the Same.
Extra fcap. 8vo. 2s. 6d. KEY, for Teachers only. 2s. 6d. net.
EXERCISES IN LATIN VERSE OF VARIOUS KINDS.
By Rev. G. PRESTON. Globe 8vo. 2s. 6d. KEY, for Teachers
only. Globe 8vo. 5s. net.
AN INTRODUCTION TO LATIN ELEGIAC VERSE
COMPOSITION. By J. H. LUPTON, Stir-Master of St. Paul's
School. Globe 8vo. 2s. 6d. KEY TO PART II. (XXV. -C.).
Globe 8vo. 3s. 6d. net.
AN INTRODUCTION TO LATIN LYRIC VERSE COM-
POSITION. By the Same. Globe 8vo. 3s. KEY, for Teachers
only. Globe 8vo. 4s. 6d. net.
A FIRST LATIN VERSE BOOK. By W. E. P. PANTIN, M.A.
Globe 8vo. Is. 6d. KEY, for Teachers only. 4s. net.
LATIN ELEGIACS AND PROSODY RHYMES FOR
BEGINNERS. By C. H. ST. L. RUSSELL, M.A. GlobeSvo. Is. 6d.
MACMILLAN'S ELEMENTARY LATIN -ENGLISH DIC-
TIONARY. By Rev. G. H. NALL,' M.A. 3s. 6d.
ENGLISH-LATIN AND LATIN-ENGLISH DICTION-
ARIES. By Prof. C. D. YONGE. Each sold separately, 3s. 6d. ;
or complete, 7s. 6d.
THE STUDENT'S COMPANION TO LATIN AUTHORS.
By GEORGE MIDDLETON, M.A., and THOMAS R. MILLS, M.A.
Crown 8vo. 6s.
AN INTRODUCTION TO LATIN TEXTUAL EMENDA-
TION, based on the text of Plautus. By W. M. LINDSAY, M.A.
Globe 8vo. 3s. 6d.
A SHORT MANUAL OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
FOR CLASSICAL STUDENTS. By P. GILES, M.A. Second
Edition. Crown 8vo. 14s.
MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON.
PA 2087 .65 1903 SMC
Gildersleeve, Basil Lanneau,
Gildersleeve's Latin grammar
3d ed., rev. and enl. / by
B. L. Gildersleeve and
Gonzalez Lodge. —
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11